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THE 


History  and  Romance 

OF 

Ancient  Empires 


The  Rise  to  Power,  the  Conquest,  Domin- 
ion and  Downfall,  of  the  Powerful 
Nations  of  Antiquity. 


BY 

C.  M.  STEVANS 

M,  S.  KETCHUM, 


CHICAGO: 

THE  POPULAR  PUBLISHING  CO., 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1900, 

’ BY 

C.  M.  STEVANS. 


REQAN  PRINTING  HOUSE,  CHIOAGO 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Introduction  - 

PAGE 

5 

The  Chaldeans 

x5 

4 

The:  Phoenicians 

- i9 

Jr 

The  Carthagenians 

27 

JL 

v * 

The  Ethiopians 

- 31 

i 

The  Egyptians 

36 

L 

The  Hebrews  - 

- 49 

The  Arabians 

66 

<5^ 

The  Eydians  - - - 

- 78 

The  Assyrians 

85 

>«■ 

The  Babylonians 

- 100 

<rr~; 

The  Medes  - 

108 

so 

The  Persians  - 

- ii5 

T* 

The  Parthians 

132 

The  Hindoos  - 

- 147 

The  Orientals 

153 

Table  of  Contents. 


The  Grecians  - 

PAGE 
- 1 68 

The  Romans 

229 

The  Byzantine  Empire 

- 307 

The  Dark  Ages 

3i4 

The  Feudal  System 

• - 318 

Chivalry  - 

321 

The  Crusades 

• - 324 

INTRODUCTION. 


THE  ARYANS. 

The  Aryan  family  of  nations  occupy  most  of  the  first 
six  thousand  years  of  the  world’s  history.  From  the 
earliest  obtainable  sources  of  information,  it  is  shown 
that  this  Indo-European  branch  of  the  human  race  has 
always  possessed,  wherever  it  spread,  the  finest  and 
most  fruitful  portions  of  the  earth. 

The  story  of  the  strange  races  these  people  encoun- 
tered in  their  pre-historic  migration  from  their  primi- 
tive home,  what  wars  they  fought,  what  triumphs  they 
won,  what  heroes  they  developed,  can  never  be  recov- 
ered from  that  ancient  night  of  human  life.  But  there 
is  evidence  enough  to  satisfy  the  seeker  into  the  past 
that  this  energetic  and  superior  people  subjugated  the 
native  population  wherever  they  went,  and  gradually 
absorbed  it  into  one  consanguineous  body. 

The  original  Aryan  language  was  correspondingly 
affected ; and,  at  the  dawn  of  authentic  history,  Europe 
was  peopled  with  vast  hordes  of  different  Aryan  tribes 
knowing  no  relationship  or  similarity  of  interests. 

For  more  than  a thousand  years  Aryan  fought  Aryan 
for  the  glory  of  supremacy,  and  in  turn  the  different 
divisions  of  the  Aryan  family  became  powerful  and 

(5) 


6 


Ancient  Empires. 


then  fell  under  a greater  rival  power.  When  the  world- 
wide Greek  dominion  was  broken,  the  Latin  rose  and 
in  its  turn  gave  way  to  the  Teutonic.  In  the  Latin 
family  the  Spanish  and  French  seemed,  in  more  recent 
times,  about  to  become  world  conquerors,  but  grad- 
ually lost  in  comparative  strength  before  the  expansion 
and  progress  of  the  German  and  English. 

The  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  shows  the  Aryan 
race  in  its  most  rapid  development  with  the  Teutonic 
nations  far  in  advance.  The  inclination  of  the  Teutonic 
family  is  for  peace  and,  in  the  evolutions  of  nations,  the 
fittest  is  doubtless  prevailing  toward  the  ends  of  the 
best  civilization  obtainable  among  men. 

THE  SOURCES  OF  HISTORY. 

Architectural  monuments,  sculptured  records  and 
household  fragments,  are  the  three  chief  sources  of  in- 
formation concerning  the  fabulous  period  of  ancient 
history.  The  world  has  been  the  home  of  many  races 
of  men  that  have  disappeared,  leaving  no  trace  which 
gives  any  accurate  knowledge  of  their  character  or 
achievements.  A few  weapons,  household  utensils  and 
ornaments  found  in  their  tombs  and  in  the  ruins  of 
their  dwelling  places  are  all  that  remain  to  indicate  the 
existence  of  these  forefathers  of  the  human  race. 

The  lake  dwellers  of  Switzerland,  the  numerous  in- 
habitants of  the  age  of  stone  and  the  age  of  bronze,  the 
mound  builders  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,and  the  build- 
ers of  shell  mounds  in  Denmark  and  India  are  exam- 
ples of  those  extinct  races. 


Introduction. 


7 


Recent  discoveries  of  the  fragmentary  remains  of 
these  ancient  people  have  added  greatly  to  our  meager 
knowledge  of  them.  The  Earl  of  Arundel  brought  to 
England  from  Smyrna  the  Parian  Marble  which  con- 
tains, chronologically,  the  most  important  events  in 
Grecian  history  from  the  earliest  period  to  355  B.  C. 
Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  discovered  the  Assyrian  Canon 
which  consists  of  numerous  chronological  tablets  made 
during  the  reign  of  Sardonapalus.  It  contains  the  As- 
syrian chronology  in  which  is  the  verified  date  of  a 
solar  eclipse  occurring  June  15,  763  B.  C.  Fragments 
of  the  Fasti  Capitolini  unearthed  at  Rome  in  1547, 
1817  and  1818  contain  lists  of  Roman  Magistrates  and 
triumphs  between  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  Repub- 
lic and  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

During  Napoleon  Bonaparte’s  expedition  into  Egypt 
in  1798,  a French  military  engineer  discovered  a cu- 
riously carved  tablet  of  basalt  near  the  Rosetta  mouth 
of  the  Nile.  This  precious  relic  was  captured  by  the 
English  when  they  defeated  the  French  forces  in 
Egypt.  Copies  were  at  once  made  and  distributed 
among  the  learned  societies  of  Europe.  It  was  soon 
discovered  that  the  inscription  was  in  Hieroglyphic, 
Demotic  and  Greek.  It  was  found  that  this  tablet  after- 
ward known  as  the  Rosetta  stone  was  engraved  136  B. 
C.  in  order  to  announce  an  ordinance  to  the  Egyptian 
Priests  decreeing  certain  honors  to  Ptolemy  Epiphanes, 
one  of  the  famous  Greek  dynasties,  beginning  with 
Ptolemy  and  ending  with  Cleopatra.  The  Hieroglyphic 
inscription  was  deciphered  by  means  of  the  accom- 
panying Greek  translation  and  the  key  to  the  Egyptian 


8 


Ancient  Empires. 


Hieroglyphics  was  thus  at  hand.  The  learned  Egypt- 
ologists, Champollion,  Mariette,  Dr.  Young  and  others, 
soon  opened  the  way  to  the  enormous  treasury  of 
Egyptian  history  to  be  found  on  their  monuments  and 
in  their  tombs. 

Much  light  on  Phoenician  history  comes  from  the 
fragmentary  writings  of  Sanchoniathon,  from  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  through  Berosus;  on  Egypt,  from 
Manethos  lists  of  the  thirty  dynasties  of  Egyptian 
kings,  and  on  the  ancient  nations  in  general  from  the 
works  of  Herodotus.  The  learned  archeologists  and 
Egyptian  chronologists,  Layard  and  Rawlinson,  have 
reformed  the  history  of  Assyria,  Chaldaea  and  Baby- 
lonia through  their  exhaustive  researches.  Dr.  Schlie- 
mann,  between  the  years  1869  and  1873,  discovered 
many  valuable  historical  relics  in  the  site  of  ancient 
Troy.  The  Hebrew  scriptures,  the  Greek  and  Latin 
writers,  Josephus,  and  the  historians  of  the  early  Chris- 
tion  church  furnish  nearly  all  the  information  to  be 
had  from  the  more  reliable  periods  of  ancient  history. 

PRIMITIVE  SOCIETY. 

Two  very  opposite  opinions  prevail  regarding  the 
primitive  conditions  of  mankind.  One  represents  hu- 
man life  as  beginning  in  the  Golden  Age  of  innocence 
and  bliss ; the  other  insists  that  the  present  civilization 
of  man  has  been  evolved  from  a state  of  wild  and  sav- 
age barbarism.  The  first  theory  is  upheld  in  the  sacred 
writings  of  all  the  oriental  nations.  Jews,  Chinese,  In- 
dians, Persians,  Babylonians,  Egyptians  and  the  nations 


Introduction. 


9 


of  every  country  having  a well  defined  religious  faith, 
concur  in  the  belief  that  man  has  fallen  from  a former 
high  estate.  Some  begin  their  history  with  dynasties 
of  gods  and  heroes  who  came  to  earth  and  dwelt  among 
men.  According  to  the  other  theory  man  was  orig- 
inally in  the  lowest  estate  and  has. gradually,  but  slowly 
and  painfully,  reached  the  present  forms  of  judicial  ad- 
ministration and  mental  development. 

The  origin  of  man,  as  recorded  in  the  pagan  religions 
of  antiquity,  abounds  in  such  gross  absurdities  as  to 
lead  only  to  absolute  darkness. 

The  pre-historic  races  led  a pastoral  and  agricultural 
life.  They  formed  vast  communities  and  were  divided 
only  when  irreconcilable  quarrels  arose  among  the 
heads  of  families.  The  first  step  known  to  have  been 
made  towards  the  methods  of  modern  civilization,  from 
the  purely  family  life,  was  in  the  formation  of. villages 
by  the  Aryans. 

ORIGIN  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

The  first  form  of  government  known  in  history  is 
that  of  the  patriarchal,  which  leads  by  easy  steps  to  the 
monarchal.  In  the  beginning,  some  primitive  pa- 
triarch caused  his  office  to  be  given  to  his  eldest  son, 
and  thus  it  was  made  hereditary  in  his  family.  In  time 
the  hereditary  patriarch  became  an  hereditary  king. 
These  first  monarchies  were  very  weak,  and  their  terri- 
tory was  extremely  limited ; but  from  the  security  thus 
attained  by  the  centralization  of  power  proceeded  the 
idea  of  conquest,  and  the  boundaries  of  authority  there- 
by became  greatly  enlarged. 

In  the  chronicles  of  ancient  times  the  reader  is  often 


10 


AncieDt  Empires. 


misled  by  attributing  power  to  the  kings  of  that  period 
similar  to  that  held  by  the  rulers  of  a more  modern 
age.  The  kings  of  scripture  were  merely  the  chiefs  of 
tribes.  In  the  valley  of  Sodom  alone  there  were  five 
kings.  In  the  narrow  territory  of  Joshua,  that  martial 
ruler  defeated  thirty-one  kings,  and  Adonizedec,  an- 
other petty  ruler,  overthrew  seventy  kings.  Doubtless 
the  regal  office  was  at  first  elective,  but  the  troubles 
arising  from  the  aspirations  of  ambitious  men  tended 
to  make  the  office  hereditary. 

The  shepherds,  from  the  necessity  of  their  frequent 
change  of  pasture,  were  the  first  to  develop  the  idea  of 
conquest.  This  was  the  impulse  which  caused  the 
Arabians  and  Phoenicians  to  leave  their  ancestral 
homes  and  become  invaders  and  conquerors.  Under 
the  name  of  Shepherd  Kings,  they  conquered  Egypt, 
but  their  dominion  could  have  only  short  duration, 
since  their  character  lacked  all  that  is  essential  for  the 
stability  of  government.  From  the  nomadic  condition 
of  society  to  the  stability  of  civilization  is  a long  and 
slow  process.  Every  step  in  such  a progress  results 
from  the  demands  of  want,  or  the  injurious  experiences 
of  error. 

ORIGIN  OF  CIVIL  LAW. 

The  laws  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  world 
were  essentially  arbitrary  and  barbarous.  Offences 
were  magnified  or  ignored  according  to  the  state  of 
ignorance  and  superstition  in  the  judges.  Doubtless 
the  selfish  desire  for  safety  has  done  as  much  or  more 
than  conscience  to  secure  equality  before  the  law. 

The  earliest  laws  of  all  states  have  been  those  regard- 


Introduction. 


11 


ing  marriage.  The  institution  of  marriage  began  with 
the  formation  of  society  and  was  the  first  to  be  regu- 
lated by  unalterable  codes. 

In  many  of  the  ancient  nations  the  husband  procured 
his  wife  by  purchase  or  personal  services.  Among  the 
Assyrians,  when  the  women  arrived  at  a marriageable 
age  they  were  put  up  at  auction,  but  the  history  of  the 
Jews  shows  the  gradual  development  of  the  modern 
ideas  of  marriage. 

The  laws  of  succession  were  the  next  to  be  embodied 
in  an  absolute  code.  The  father  had  full  power  in  the 
division  of  his  property,  but  there  were  certain  rights 
that  were  often  inalienable  in  primogeniture.  The  in- 
tegrity of  society  makes  imperative  the  integrity  of 
law.  The  relationship  of  jurisprudence  and  history  is 
thus  shown  to  be  very  close,  and  each  becomes  a pow- 
erful interpreter  of  the  other. 

methods  of  authenticating 

CONTRACTS. 

Testaments,  sales,  contracts,  marriages  and  the  like 
were  in  the  earliest  times  transacted  in  public,  so  that 
they  might  be  authenticated  by  witnesses.  Many  bar- 
barous nations  authenticated  their  bargain  by  exchang- 
ing certain  symbols.  The  Peruvians  accomplished  this 
by  knotted  cords  of  various  colors.  The  Mexicans  used 
a method  of  painting,  and  the  Egyptians  employed 
hieroglyphics.  After  the  invention  of  writing,  the 
learned  priesthood  of  the  Egyptians  still  continued  to 
transmit  and  record  certain  knowledge  by  the  use  of 
hieroglyphics  in  order  to  conceal  it  from  the  laity. 


12 


Ancient  Empires. 


METHODS  FOR  RECORDING  HISTORICAL 
FACTS  AND  PUBLISHING  LAWS. 

History  was  first  embalmed  in  poetry  and  song. 
Many  of  the  ancient  nations  published  their  laws 
through  the  means  of  verse.  Historical  facts  were 
sculptured  in  stone,  but  many  of  the  barbarous  tribes 
of  ancient  times  had  no  other  records  of  history  than 
scattered  tumuli  and  mounds  of  earth.  All  we  know 
of  many  of  the  more  refined  nations  is  to  be  found  in 
the  remains  of  their  columns,  triumphal  arches,  coins 
and  medals. 

THE  DIVISIONS  OF  HISTORY. 

History  may  be  divided  as  to  its  treatment  into  gen- 
eral and  particular,  as  to  its  material  into  sacred  and 
secular.  With  respect  to  time  into  ancient,  mediaeval 
and  modern.  Ancient  history  ends,  as  is  usually  con- 
ceded, with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire  in 
the  West,  A.  D.  476.  Mediaeval  history  extends  from 
that  date  until  the  discovery  of  America  in  1492.  Mod- 
ern history  embraces  the  period  from  the  discovery  of 
America  to  the  present  time. 

Ancient  history  is  divided  into  two  ages,  called  the 
fabulous  and  the  historic.  The  fabulous  age  cover* 
the  period  previous  to  the  foundation  of  Rome  B.  C. 
753.  The  historic  age  dates  from  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  because  from  that  time  on  dates  and  events  be- 
came more  clearly  authentic  and  subject  to  corrobora- 
tion. 

The  most  stupendous  revolutions  known  in  the  his- 
tory of  man  came  to  pass  in  the  early  periods  of  the 


Introduction. 


13 


historic  age.  In  that  time  occurred  the  entire  destruc- 
tion of  the  Assyrian  Empire  and  upon  its  ruins  arose 
three  great  monarchies.  It  covers  the  marvelous  his- 
tory of  Greece  with  its  astonishing  progress  of  legisla- 
tion and  its  remarkable  strides  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
fine  arts. 

MODERN  EUROPE. 

The  history  of  modern  Europe  embraces  nine  re- 
markable periods,  the  epochs  of  which  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows : 

A.  D.  A.  D. 

1.  The  fall  of  the  Western  Empire 476  to  800 

2.  The  re-establishment  of  that  empire  by 

Charlemagne  800  to  962 

3.  The  translation  of  the  Empire  to  Ger- 

many, by  Otho  the  Great 962  to  1074 

4.  The  accession  of  Henry  IV  to  the  impe- 

rial crown,  and  the  Crusades 1074  to  1273 

5.  The  elevation  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg 

to  the  imperial  throne 1273  to  1453 

6.  The  fall  of  the  Empire  of  the  East. . . . 1453  to  1648 

7.  The  peace  of  Westphalia 1648  to  1713 

8.  The  peace  of  Utrecht 1713  to  1789 

9.  The  French  Revolution  to  the  present 

time  1789  to  1900 

BRANCHES  OF  THE  ARYAN  FAMILY. 

1.  Hindus. 

2.  Medes  and  Persians. 

3.  Hellenes,  or  Greeks. 


14 


Ancient  Empires. 


4.  Latin,  or  Romanic  Nations. 

(1)  Ancient  Romans. 

(2)  Italians. 

(3)  French. 

(4)  Spaniards  and  Spanish  Americans. 

(5)  Portuguese  and  Brazilians. 

(6)  Flemings,  or  Belgians. 

(7)  Roumanians. 

5.  Germanic,  or  Teutonic  Nations. 

(1)  Germans. 

(2)  Danes. 

(3)  Swedes. 

(4)  Norwegians. 

(5)  Dutch,  or  Hollanders. 

(6)  England  and  Anglo-American  (Anglo 
Saxon). 

(7)  Scotch  Lowlanders. 

(8)  Norman-French. 

6.  Celtic  Nations. 

( 1 ) Ancient  Britons,  Gauls,  and  Spaniards. 

(2)  Irish,  Welsh,  and  Scotch  Highlanders. 

(3)  Bretons  (West  of  France). 

7.  Slavonic  Nations. 

(1)  Russians. 

(2)  Poles. 

(3)  Bohemians. 

(4)  Servians. 

(5)  Bulgarians. 

(6)  Bosnians. 

(7)  Croatians. 


ANCIENT  EMPIRES 


THE  CHALDEANS. 

Chaldsea  was  the  most  ancient  monarchy  in  Asia  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge.  This  kingdom  occu- 
pied the  fertile  district  through  the  broad  belt  of  des- 
ert, traversing  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  from  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  on  the  southwest,  to  the  Yellow  Sea  on 
the  east.  The  great  western  plain  between  the  Arabian 
Desert  and  the  mountain  ranges  of  Kurdistan  was  the 
site  of  three  of  the  greatest  empires  of  the  world.  This 
country  was  known  to  the  Jews  as  Aram-Naharaim,  or 
“Syria  of  the  Two  Rivers.”  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
called  it  Mesopotamia. 

The  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers  gave  it  all  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  importance  and  fertility.  Lower 
Mesopotamia,  like  Egypt,  was  acquired  land,  being  the 
actual  gift  of  the  streams  which  wash  it  on  either  side. 
Chaldsea  was  in  the  southern  portion  of  this  great 
plain.  It  extended  from  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south, 
to  the  natural  line  of  division  between  Upper  and 
Lower  Mesopotamia  on  the  north,  and  extended  east 
and  west  between  the  Arabian  Desert  and  the  Tigris. 
The  climate  of  this  region  is  moderate  and  pleasant. 
Frost  is  known,  but  ice  rarely  forms.  The  warm  season 


(15) 


1(> 


Ancient  Empires. 


begins  early  in  May  and  usually  lasts  through  Novem- 
ber. In  ancient  times  rich  crops  were  raised  on  the  fer- 
tile soil,  and  modern  investigators  all  agree  that  by 
proper  irrigation  and  cultivation  this  whole  region 
could  be  made  a garden  spot  of  the  world.  Wheat  is 
supposed  to  be  indigenous  in  Chaldaea,  where  it  may 
be  mowed  twice  and  then  used  as  pasturage  for  cattle. 

As  Chaldsea  is  destitute  of  stone  or  metals,  and  had 
an  inexhaustible  supply  of  bituminous  clay,  remains  of 
the  ancient  Chaldaean  civilization  are  to  be  found  al- 
most altogether  in  clay  tablets. 

The  early  history  of  Chaldaea  abounds  in  the  fabu- 
lous and  obscure.  The  most  clearly  defined  traditions 
point  to  Nimrod,  the  descendant  of  Ham,  as  being  the 
father  of  the  Chaldaean  nation.  Nimrod  is  said  to  have 
founded  Babylon  in  the  year  B.  C.  22 86.  He  was  a 
monarch  of  great  personal  power  and  ambition,  who 
was  called  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  “A  mighty  hunter 
before  the  Lord.”  We  know  nothing  further  of  his 
reign  than  that  he  built  the  cities  of  Erech  or  Hurak, 
Accad  and  Calneh  in  the  land  of  Shinar.  From  the 
impression  which  he  made  upon  his  country  it  is  evi- 
dent that  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  ancient 
world.  He  was  defied  by  his  nation,  and  until  the  latest 
times  was  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  worship  under 
the  title  of  Bel-Nimrod.  Rawlinson  says  that  the  name 
given  by  the  Arabic  astronomers  to  the  constellation  of 
Orion,  El  Jabbar,  the  giant,  was  in  memory  of  Nimrod. 

The  only  ancient  heroes  still  remembered  by  the  As- 
syrians are  Nimrod,  Solomon  and  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  period  immediatelyfollowing  the  reign  of  Nimrod 


The  Chaldseans. 


17 


has  been  lost,  but  there  was  evidently  an  emigration  of 
the  Semitic  and  Hamitic  tribes  to  the  northward.  The 
Assyrians  or  Semites,  went  into  Upper  Mesopotamia, 
while  the  Phoenicians  or  the  Hamitic  people  passed 
into  Canaan  and  settled  along  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean. The  Hebrews  originated  from  the  tribe 
which  passed  into  northern  Mesopotamia. 

The  earliest  Chaldaean  monarch  of  whom  any  traces 
have  been  found  was  Urkham.  His  reign  began  about 

B.  C.  2326.  He  built  numerous  gigantic  temples,  mass- 
ive in  size,  but  rude  in  construction.  The  bricks  are 
rough  and  put  together  in  the  most  awkward  manner. 
Rawlinson  says:  “In  his  architecture,  though  there  is 
much  that  is  rude  and  simple,  there  is  also  a good  deal 
which  indicates  knowledge  and  experience.”  The  capi- 
tal of  his  kingdom  was  at  Ur,  Babylon  having  not 
yet  risen  to  a prominent  position.  Urkham  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Egli.  He  styled  himself  king  of  Ur. 
The  signet  cylinder  of  this  king  has  been  found,  and  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  blank  that  follows  the  reign  of  Egli  in  Chaldaean 
history  is  broken  by  the  conquering  of  the  country  B. 

C.  2286  by  an  Elamitic  Dynasty  from  Susa.  A third 
dynasty  of  eleven  kings  began  about  B.  C.  2052.  This 
marks  the  period  betwen  the  conquest  of  the  Elamitic 
kings  and  the  independence  of  the  Chaldaeans.  Be- 
twen the  years  B.  C.  1546  and  B.  C.  1300  an  Arab  chief, 
Khammurabi,  made  himself  master  of  the  country.  He 
ruled  wisely  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  a proper  sys- 
tem of  irrigation.  One  of  his  inscriptions  says  that 
the  canals  he  constructed  changed  desert  plains  into 


18 


Ancient  Empires. 


well-watered  fields.  Many  large  buildings  were  also 
constructed  by  him.  During  the  existence  of  this  dy- 
nasty, Babylon  was  the  seat  of  the  court,  and  intimate 
relations  were  maintained  with  Assyria.  About  the 
year  B.  C.  1300  Tiglathi-Nin,  king  of  Assyria,  invaded 
and  conquered  Chaldsea,  which  became  a part  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy,  and  continued  so  for  centuries. 

The  temples  of  the  chief  pities  were  pyramidal  in 
shape,  and  built  in  successive  steps  to  considerable 
height.  Legends  were  stamped  on  the  baked  bricks, 
thus  showing  that  a form  of  writing  was  then  in  use. 
The  art  of  working  on  metals  was  known  and  textile 
fabrics  were  manufactured  from  delicate  tissues.  They 
had  a considerable  commerce  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
their  civilization,  science,  letters  and  art  extended  in 
every  direction. 

Chaldsea  thus  stands  forth  without  a rival,  as  the 
parent  of  Asiatic  civilization.  Their  religion  was  a 
polytheism  of  the  grossest  kind,  although  their  prin- 
cipal gods  numbered  but  sixteen,  their  inferior  deities 
were  legion.  Their  system  shows  a remarkable  resem- 
blance to  classic  mythology,  and  there  is  scarcely  a 
doubt  that  the  mythological  notions  and  ideas  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  had  their  origin  among  the  primi- 
tive tribes  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 


THE  PHOENICIANS. 


A narrow  strip  of  land  extending  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean from  the  ladder  of  Tyre  on  the  South,  to  the 
• Island  of  Aradus,  called  Arvad  in  the  Bible,  consti- 
tutes the  territory  occupied  by  the  ancient  Phoenicians. 
The  Lebanon  range  on  the  East  was  covered  with  great 
cedars  and  afforded  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  timber 
for  ship  building. 

The  Phoenicians  originated  in  the  Hamitic  race  and 
were  descended  from  Canaan.  They  came  to  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  about  the  time  of  Nimrod,  built 
many  cities  and  were  finally  united  into  a confederacy. 
Each  city  was  free,  but  in  time  of  war  one  was  ac- 
knowledged as  the  leader.  Sidon  was  the  oldest,  and 
was  the  first  to  reach  the  greatest  height  of  wealth  and 
power.  It  was  early  a commercial  city  and  entered 
upon  great  enterprises  by  land  and  sea  with  neighbor- 
ing nations.  In  time  it  engaged  in  a system  of  found- 
ing colonies  which  subsequently  made  the  influence  of 
the  Phoenicians  upon  the  destinies  of  the  world  of  in- 
estimable value.  Until  the  year  B.  C.  1050  Sidon  re- 
mained chief  of  the  cities,  but  at  that  time  it  was  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  by  the  Philistines,  who  over- 
ran the  country  from  the  Southern  part  of  Palestine. 

Tyre,  the  first  of  the  Phoenician  colonies,  then  be- 
came the  principal  city.  The  original  city  of  Tyre  stood 
on  the  main  land,  but  this  being  captured  and  destroyed 
the  inhabitants  rebuilt  the  city  on  an  island  about  one 


(19) 


20 


Ancient  Empires. 


mile  from  the  shore.  In  a short  time  it  surpassed  all 
other  cities  in  wealth,  splendor  and  commercial  great- 
ness. 

The  Phoenicians  were  the  earliest  navigators,  and  for 
many  centuries  the  commerce  of  the  world  was  ex- 
clusively in  their  hands.  Their  first  commercial  ven- 
tures were  doubtless  made  with  Egypt,  which  was 
easily  reached  by  land.  Many  bronze  implements  of 
undoubted  Phoenician  origin  have  been  found  in  Egyp- 
tian tombs  that  were  contemporary  with  the  Pyramids. 
Tin  being  one  of  the  component  parts  of  bronze,  and 
being  found  no  nearer  to  Egypt  than  in  the  Caucasus, 
India  or  Spain,  it  must  have  been  brought  into  Egypt 
from  one  of  these  regions,  with  which  the  Phoenicians 
probably  had  exclusive  trade.  The  search  for  this 
metal,  which  was  at  that  time  in  great  demand,  caused 
the  Phoenicians  to  seek  it  in  less  difficult  fields  than 
those  of  the  Caucasus  and  of  India.  An  open  sea  af- 
forded a safe  way  to  the  Spanish  coast  where  tin  was 
found  in  abundance.  When  the  Phoenicians  had  ac- 
quired great  wealth  and  power,  they  still  carried  on  and 
sought  to  increase  the  commerce  which  they  had  opened 
up  in  the  East.  At  a very  late  period  the  Phoenicians 
still  held  the  exclusive  privilege  of  furnishing  Italy  and 
Greece  with  tin.  At  last  the  mines  of  Spain  were  ex- 
hausted, and  then  the  Phoenician  navigators  passed  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  and  made  frequent  visits  to  the 
■coast  of  Cornwall.  Following  their  profitable  sea  trade 
they  established  colonies  at  advanced  points  and  trading 
stations  in  distant  countries,  which  ultimately  devel- 
oped into  important  cities.  The  vast  extent  of  the  Phoe- 


The  Phoenicians. 


21 


nician  trade  is  thus  indicated  by  the  position  of  these 
colonies.  Some  of  the  cities  arising  in  these  colonies 
soon  rose  to  such  prominence  as  to  surpass  the  mother 
country  in  the  extent  of  their  trade.  Voyages  were 
made  to  the  West  coast  of  Africa  for  apes,  and  to  the 
Scilly  Isles  and  Cornwall  for  tin.  Other  vessels  went 
to  India  and  Ceylon,  returning  with  diamonds  and 
pearls.  Gold  was  obtained  from  Ophir  on  the  South- 
east coast  of  Arabia.  They  entered  the  Black  Sea  and 
established  relations  with  Thrace,  Scythia  and  Colchis. 
The  land  traffic  was  begun  between  these  colonial  sta- 
tions, the  Red  Sea,  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  very 
likely  extended  to  all  the  neighboring  nations.  The 
great  wealth  obtained  from  their  commerce  was  swelled 
by  their  domestic  manufactories.  They  originated  the 
famous  dye  known  as  Tyrian  purple,  which  they  ob- 
tained in  minute  drops  from  two  shell  fish,  Buccinum 
and  Murex.  This  dye,  being  very  costly,  was  used  only 
to  obtain  the  most  beautiful  effects  in  silk  fabrics  and 
woolen  goods.  Homer  speaks  of  his  heroes  being  ar- 
rayed in  Sidonian  robes  dyed  in  this  gorgeous  purple  of 
deep-red  violet. 

The  art  of  glass  blowing  was  also  an  invention  of 
the  Phoenicians,  and  they  attained  a high  degree  of 
skill  in  its  exercise.  Specimens  of  their  glassware  still 
exist  attesting  their  skill  and  workmanship.  They 
were  well  advanced  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  and 
the  Greeks  learned  from  them  the  art  of  making 
painted  vases.  Many  of  them  were  skillful  jewelers, 
and  they  were  noted  for  their  beautiful  carvings  in 
ivory.  They  produced  excellent  wines.  Canaan  was 


22 


Ancient  Empires. 


noted  for  its  profusion  of  fruits,  and  the  production  of 
silk  became  a source  of  increasing  wealth. 

At  this  time  the  writing  of  the  Eastern  nations  was 
ideographic,  but  the  Phoenicians  used  an  alphabet  of 
twenty-two  letters,  each  of  which  represented  an  in- 
variable articulation.  There  is  considerable  reason  to 
believe  that  the  Phoenician  alphabet  was  invented  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Avaris,  one  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  of 
Egypt,  several  centuries  before  the  exodus  of  the 
Israelites.  As  this  is  the  first  true  alphabet  known,  to 
the  Phoenicians  belongs  the  honor  of  its  use,  whether 
they  were  the  inventors  or  not.  Wherever  their  com- 
mercial enterprises  took  them  they  introduced  the  use 
of  this  alphabet,  and  so  spread  the  knowledge  of  writ- 
ing over  the  world.  Although  the  Phoenicians  were 
descendants  of  Ham,  they  spoke  a Semitic  language, 
the  idioms  of  which  differed  but  little  from  that  of  the 
Hebrews;  in  fact,  the  similarity  in  grammatical  forms 
and  vocabulary  is  so  marked  that  they  cannot  properly 
be  considered  as  two  distinct  languages. 

Among  their  accomplishments,  so  remarkable  for 
that  early  period,  may  also  be  included  a well  ad- 
vanced literature.  They  had  treatises  on  religion,  agri- 
culture and  the  useful  arts ; many  of  the  cities  pos- 
sessed regular  records  in  writing,  and  the  principles  of 
their  religion,  social  and  political  organizations  were 
embodied  in  a written  law.  The  people  of  Sidon  were 
noted  for  their  skill  in  mathematics,  philosophy  and 
architecture.  Immense  stones  were  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  their  buildings,  as  may  still  be  seen  in 
the  temple  platforms  at  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  sea  walls 


The  Phoenicians. 


23 


of  Tyre,  which  were  built  by  Phoenician  architects  and 
masons. 

Although  they  aimed  at  the  massive  and  enduring 
in  their  buildings,  large  statues  were  very  rare.  Some 
of  their  stone  sculpture  exhibit  great  artistic  skill,  but 
their  statuettes  of  baked  clay  and  bronze  are  rough  and 
coarse  in  design  and  execution.  They  recognized  one 
universal  divine  being,  usually  termed  Baal,  the  lord. 
He  was  the  great  agent  of  creative  power,  and  repre- 
sented the  sun.  Fire  was  venerated,  and  the  solar  and 
sideral  deities  were  fire  gods. 

The  Phoenician  deities  were  worshiped  with  the 
most  licentious  and  horrible  rites.  As  the  people  were 
themselves  servile,  gloomy  and  cruel,  their  customs  and 
manners  were  likewise  selfish  and  corrupt.  The  com- 
mercial spirit  possessed  them  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
finer  feeling,  and  displaced  every  generous  emotion  and 
elevating  sentiment. 

The  location  of  Phoenicia,  as  well  as  its  enormous 
wealth,  made  it  the  battleground  of  the  ages.  In  an 
early  day  it  was  subjugated  by  Egypt,  and  in  turn  was 
devastated  and  conquered  by  all  the  warlike  powers  of 
the  ancient  world. 

In  the  eleventh  century  before  Christ,  Tyre  became 
the  leading  city  of  Syria.  Its  first  king  was  Abibaal, 
who  was  contemporary  with  David.  His  son,  Hiram, 
succeeded  him  B.  C.  1025,  and  reigned  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  century.  Hiram  maintained  intimate 
relations  with  both  David  and  Solomon  of  Israel,  and 
supplied  most  of  the  costly  materials  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Jewish  temple.  The  supremacy  of  Tyre 


24 


Ancient  Empires. 


caused  the  king  of  Tyre  to  be  known  as  the  king  of  the 
Sidonians,  although  there  was  a local  monarch,  known 
as  king  of  Sidon.  The  king  of  Tyre  had  charge  of  all 
the  business  with  other  nations  relating  to  Phoenicia. 
Hiram  died  in  B.  C.  991,  and  the  following  fifty  years 
were  full  of  constant  domestic  intrigue  and  insurrec- 
tions until  Eth-Baal,  known  as  Ithobalus,  the  High 
Priest  of  Astarte,  slew  Phales,  the  last  pretender,  and 
made  himself  king  of  the  Sidonians  from  the  throne 
of  Tyre.  It  was  his  daughter,  Jezebel,  who  married 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  She  exerted  such  influence  over 
the  mind  of  her  husband  that  Israel  practically  came 
under  the  control  of  Phoenicia.  Eth-Baal  died  about 
B.  C.  909,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Matgen.  This 
king  died  B.  C.  871,  leaving  a son  called  Pygmalion, 
and  a daughter  known  to  history  as  Dido.  It  was 
Matgen’s  wish  that  his  children  should  reign  together, 
but  the  people  claimed  Pygmalion  king  to  the  exclusion 
of  his  sister.  At  this  Dido  married  the  High  Priest  of 
Melcarth,  who  was  next  in  rank  to  the  king,  and  at  the 
head  of  the  aristocratic  and  opposing  party.  Dido’s 
husband,  Zicharbaal,  spoken  of  by  Virgil  as  Ichaeus, 
was  soon  after  assassinated  by  order  of  Pygmalion. 
Dido  then  organized  a conspiracy,  composed  of  Phoe- 
nician nobles,  who  were  bent  on  dethroning  Pygmalion, 
and  avenging  the  death  of  Dido’s  husband.  However, 
the  conspirators  were  defeated,  and  in  their  extremity 
several  thousand  of  them  seized  the  ships  lying  in  the 
harbor  of  Tyre  and  sailed  away  under  the  leadership 
of  Dido,  this  name  being  given  to  her  at  that  time,  and 
signifying  the  fugitive.  Reaching  the  northeastern 


The  Phoenicians. 


25 


coast  of  Africa,  they  became  the  founders  of  Carthage. 
Although  Pygmalion’s  reign  ended  B.  C.  824  we  have 
no  information  of  any  other  Phoenician  monarch  for 
more  than  one  hundred  years.  During  this  time  they 
were  subject  to  Assyria,  but  the  prosperity  and  mari- 
time power  of  the  country  seems  in  no  wise  to  have 
been  injured.  There  was  an  unsuccessful  revolt  in  B.  C. 
743,  under  Hiram  of  Tyre  from  the  rule  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II. 

In  B.  C.  727  Elulaeus  endeavored  to  wrest  Phoenicia 
from  Shalmaneser  IV.  The  Assyrian  king  at  once  oc- 
cupied old  Tyre  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  on  the  island. 
As  the  Assyrians  had  no  fleet  and  could  not  take  it 
from  the  land,  their  siege  was  merely  a blockade.  They 
destroyed  the  aqueduct  from  the  main  land  which  sup- 
plied the  city  with  water,  and  the  people  subsisted  on 
such  rain  water  as  they  were  able  to  catch  from  the 
clouds  during  the  five  years  of  their  resistance.  Mean- 
while Shalmaneser  was  dethroned,  but  the  siege  was 
continued  by  Sargon,  his  successor. 

Sargon  collected  a fleet  of  sixty  ships  from  the  other 
Phoenician  cities  which  he  had  captured,  and  endeav- 
ored to  attack  the  island  city  from  the  sea,  but  the 
Tyrians  met  him  with  their  fleet  of  twelve  ships  and 
totally  destroyed  his  entire  force.  Unable  to  overcome 
Tyre,  Sargon  abandoned  the  siege,  but  as  the  Assyrians 
had  subjugated  all  the  remaining  territory  the  power 
of  Tyre  was  almost  destroyed. 

In  B.  C.  704,  soon  after  Sennacherib  had  ascended 
the  throne,  Elulaeus  reasserted  the  supremacy  of  Tyre 
and  proclaimed  the  independence  of  Phoenicia.  Four 


26 


Ancient  Empires. 


years  later  Sennacherib  invaded  the  country  with  a 
powerful  army,  and  all  the  cities  but  Tyre  at  once  sub- 
mitted. After  a determined  resistance,  in  which  all  the 
resources  of  the  Island  of  Tyre  were  exhausted,  the  city 
was  compelled  to  submit  to  Sennacherib,  and  Elulaeus 
found  safety  in  flight.  After  the  assassination  of  Sen- 
nacherib, Sidon  rebelled  and  made  an  attempt  to  secure 
the  supremacy  formerly  held  by  Tyre.  Essar-haddon, 
B.  C.  681,  moved  against  the  rebellious  Sidon,  de- 
stroyed it  and  enslaved  the  people.  Phoenicia  threw  off 
the  Assyrian  yoke  at  the  death  of  Essar-haddon,  and 
made  an  alliance  with  Egypt.  But  in  B.  C.  666  the 
Assyrian  supremacy  was  again  restored.  In  B.  C.  630 
a Scythian  invasion  ravaged  the  whole  country  of  Phoe- 
nicia, but  was  unable  to  take  any  of  the  fortified  cities. 
This  unhappy  territory  for  many  years  following  was 
alternately  the  pray  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  In  the 
reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.  C.  598,  Tyre  resisted  an 
Assyrian  siege  of  thirteen  years,  but  was  at  last  carried 
by  assault  and  reduced  to  ruins.  Most  of  the  popula- 
tion fled  to  Carthage,  taking  with  them  their  wealth 
and  their  industry. 

In  later  years  the  country  fell  a pray  to  the  conquest 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  terminated  the  national 
existence  of  Phoenicia.  Rome  held  that  territory 
through  many  generations  until  it  was  at  last  included 
in  the  Empire  of  the  Mohammedans. 


THE  CARTHAGENIANS. 


Dido  with  her  aristocratic  friends,  flying  from  the 
wrath  of  her  brother,  Pygmalion,  at  Tyre,  arrived  at 
the  head  of  a peninsula  which  projected  eastward  into 
the  Gulf  of  Tunis,  and  founded  the  city  of  Carthage, 
B.  C.  869.  For  two  centuries  the  history  of  this  city  is 
a mere  woof  of  fables,  but  its  power  was  gradually  ex- 
tending, and  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ  it  be- 
comes known  to  history  as  a flourishing  metropolis 
having  acknowledged  supremacy  over  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  ter- 
ritory of  Cyrene,  and  from  the  sea  to  Lake  Triton  on 
the  south. 

It  is  clear  that  from  the  beginning  Carthage  aimed 
at  nothing  less  than  the  establishment  of  a great  em- 
pire on  the  land  and  over  the  sea.  It  won  the  allegiance 
of  the  nomadic  tribes  on  the  main  land,  and  caused 
them  to  engage  in  agricultural  pursuits.  Colonies  were 
established  among  them  and  intermarriages  were  en- 
couraged. In  the  course  of  time  a strong  mixed  race 
arose,  which  yielded  ready  submission  to  Carthage, 
adopting  it's  language  and  customs.  As  early  as  the 
founding  of  Carthage,  a number  of  Phoenician  colonies 
were  in  existence  along  the  coast,  which  afterward  be- 
came Carthagenian  territory.  Carthage  never  entirely 
subjugated  them,  but  held  a position  toward  them 
very  similar  to  that  of  Tyre  over  the  old  Phoenician 
cities.  This  was  an  element  of  weakness  which  in  her 


(27) 


28 


Ancient  Empires. 


destructive  wars  with  Rome  weighed  terribly  against 
her.  At  a very  early  day  Carthage  established  a strong 
influence  over  Sicily.  Sardinia  near  the  close  of  the 
sixth  century  B.  C.  was  conquered,  and  about  the  same 
time  Carthagenian  colonies  were  established  in  the 
islands  lying  in  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  A little  later  other  colonies  were  planted  in  Cor- 
sica and  Spain.  As  most  of  the  Carthagenians  were 
actively  engaged  in  commercial  enterprises,  the  con- 
quests of  this  city  were  largely  effected  by  the  employ- 
ment of  foreign  troops.  Carthage  early  maintained  a 
powerful  navy,  which  was  formed  at  first  to  protect  its 
commerce  from  the  Mediterranean  pirates.  The  ves- 
sels were  rowed  by  slaves,  but  the  officers  in  charge 
were  native  Carthagenians.  However  ambitious  the 
Carthagenians  were  for  conquests,  they  very  prudently 
never  attempted  to  acquire  more  territory  than  their 
commerce  required. 

Carthage  very  early  in  its  career  adopted  the  policy 
of  founding  colonies  on  islands,  recognizing  the  fact  that 
such  a colony  is  easier  protected  than  one  on  the  main 
land.  The  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean  was  an 
open  field  to  them,  and  in  harmony  with  their  ambitions 
and  resources.  According  to  the  principles  of  its 
founders,  Carthage  was  always  an  aristocratic  Repub- 
lic, the  chief  distinction  between  the  classes  being  that 
of  wealth.  Every  Carthagenian  was  eligible  to  office, 
but  as  there  was  no  salary  attached  to  official  positions 
no  poor  man  could  afford  to  be  an  officeholder.  In 
consequence  all  political  power  was  lodged  in  the  hands 
of  the  rich,  and  public  opinion  was  kept  steadily  op- 
posed to  the  elevation  of  a poor  man  to  office. 


The  Carthagenians. 


29 


The  Carthagenians  held  to  the  same  religion  as  the 
Phoenicians,  the  worst  features  of  that  faith  being 
adopted,  and  the  most  barbarous  rites  practiced.  One 
of  the  first  measures  exacted  by  the  conquering  Romans 
was  in  the  suppression  of  human  sacrifices  to  Baal. 

Sicily  was  early  an  object  greatly  desired  by  the 
Carthagenians.  Settlements  were  made  in  the  western 
corner  of  the  island,  and  a steady  policy  was  pursued 
that  looked  toward  its  final  conquest.  No  force  was 
used,  however,  against  the  Greek  inhabitants  until  the 
fifth  century  B.  C.  When  Xerxes  invaded  Greece, 
Carthage  believed  that  the  time  had  come  to  conquer 
the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily.  Hamilcar,  son  of  Mago, 
attempted  the  conquest,  but  was  heroically  defeated  by 
Gelo  at  Himera,  B.  C.  480.  The  Carthagenian  army 
was  then  sent  against  the  Libyan  tribes,  and  they  were 
reduced  to  subjection,  thus  ending  the  tribute  which 
Carthage  had  until  that  time  paid  as  rental  for  the 
ground  on  which  the  city  stood. 

Seventy  years  after  the  first  invasion  of  the  Island  of 
Sicily  the  Carthagenians,  at  the  invitation  of  Egesta, 
again  invaded  that  island  to  assist  the  city  Egesta  in  her 
contest  with  Selinus.  Both  the  fleet  and  the  army  were 
under  command  of  Hannibal,  grandson  of  Hamilcar. 
The  Greeks  were  defeated,  Selinus  and  Himera  were 
destroyed,  and  the  Carthagenians  returned  home  in 
triumph.  Encouraged  by  their  successes,  the  Cartha- 
genians put  forth  all  their  power  to  conquer  Sicily.  The 
wars  that  followed  occupied  the  most  of  the  four  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  Era.  The  end  of  the  war 
came  in  B.  C.  340,  when  Carthage  was  compelled  to 
make  peace. 


30 


Ancient  Empires. 


Agathocles,  king  of  Syracuse,  in  B.  C.  31 1,  deter- 
mined to  drive  the  Carthagenians  out  of  Sicily.  He 
was  defeated  the  next  year  by  Hamilcar,  and  a deso- 
lating war  with  various  successes  continued  for  six 
years,  when  peace  was  declared.  At  this  time  Carthage 
barely  held  its  original  possessions  in  Sicily,  which  were 
about  one-third  of  the  island. 

In  these  wars  the  Carthagenians  learned  their  weak- 
nesses, and  received  an  excellent  training  for  the  com- 
ing struggle  of  life  or  death  with  its  great  Latin  rival. 
Meantime  the  new  power  was  rapidly  rising  in  Italy, 
that  was  destined  to  destroy  Carthage  and  conquer  the 
world.  Henceforth  the  history  of  that  unfortunate 
city  practically  belongs  to  the  history  of  Rome. 


THE  ETHIOPIANS. 


Nubia  and  Abyssinia  are  now  the  political  divisions 
covering  the  territory  that  was  occupied  by  the  An- 
cient Ethiopians.  The  origin  of  these  people  is  veiled 
in  the  impenetrable  obscurity  common  to  ancient  na- 
tions. Splendid  monuments,  colossal  statues,  obelisks, 
sphinxs  and  rock-cut  temples  show  that  this  ancient 
Hamitic  family  was  as  advanced  in  art  and  civilization 
as  its  Egyptian  neighbors. 

The  region  occupied  by  the  Ethiopians  also  contained 
nomadic  Arab  tribes,  even  at  that  date,  as  much  out  of 
touch  with  the  neighboring  civilization  as  are  the  wan- 
dering Arab  tribes  of  the  present  time. 

The  civilized  Ethiopians  possessed  a civil  govern- 
ment, dwelt  in  cities  and  executed  with  justice  their 
laws.  They  used  hieroglyphics,  and  their  progress  and 
wealth  was  such  as  to  give  them  considerable  fame  over 
other  portions  of  the  civilized  world.  That  part  of  the 
Nile  valley  wherein  they  lived  was  as  fertile  and  rich  as 
the  territory  occupied  by  the  Egyptians.  Meroe,  an 
island  almost  surrounded  by  rivers,  was  the  breeding 
ground  for  camels,  and  a considerable  commerce  in 
ivory,  ebony  and  spices  was  carried  on  both  between 
the  negroes  of  Central  Africa  and  the  Egyptians.  A 
flourishing  Ethiopian  kingdom  had  its  seat  at  Meroe 
about  1,000  years  A.  D.,  and  all  upper  Egypt  was  in- 
cluded in  its  dominion. 

As  the  Ethiopians  were,  through  most  of  their 

(31) 


32 


Ancient  Empires. 


existence,  a peaceful  people,  the  little  we  know  of  their 
history  comes  from  their  invaders.  They  were  several 
times  conquered  by  Egyptian  kings,  but  the  Egyptian 
rule  over  them  was  only  for  comparatively  short 
periods.  About  the  nth  century  B.  C.,  according  to 
the  Greek  historians,  Ethiopia  was  invaded  by  Semi- 
ramis,  the  Assyrian  queen,  who  was  one  of  the  fabulous 
heroines  of  ancient  times. 

One  of  the  first  facts  known  to  a certainty  about  the 
Ethiopians  is  that  they  aided  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt, 
when  he  sought  to  subjugate  Rehoboam,  king  of  Judah, 
in  957  B.  C.  It  is  said  that  sixteen  years  later  Zerah, 
king  of  Ethiopia,  again  invaded  Judah  with  a great 
army,  but  was  totally  defeated. 

We  learn  from  the  Jewish  scriptures  that  the  Ethio- 
pians at  one  time  controlled  the  navigation  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  were  masters  of  a large  part  of  Arabia.  To 
have  carried  on  such  an  extensive  and  distant  cam- 
paign is  proof  that  the  Ethiopian  kingdom  was  strong 
in  resources  and  military  power.  It  was  some  time  dur- 
ing this  period  that  King  Sobaco  conquered  Egypt. 
One  of  his  successors,  called  So  in  scripture,  was  so 
powerful  that  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  was  encouraged 
to  revolt  against  the  Assyrians.  As  the  Ethiopian  king 
did  not  come  to  his  assistance,  Hoshea  and  his  people 
were  carried  into  Assyrian  captivity.  Another  Ethio- 
pian king  of  Egypt,  known  as  Tirhakah  in  scripture, 
led  an  army  against  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  in 
an  attempt  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

The  Ethiopians  came  into  notice  again  during  the 
reign  of  Psammetichus  in  Egypt,  sometime  during  the 


The  Ethiopians. 


33 


7th  century,  B.  C.,  because  of  the  emigration  of  240,000 
Egyptian  soldiers  into  Ethiopia.  This  great  body  of 
the  warrior-caste  left  their  country  because  they  be- 
came offended  at  the  invitation  their  king  had  extended 
to  certain  Greek  merchants  to  settle  in  Egypt.  This 
immigration  added  greatly  to  the  prosperity  and 
strength  of  the  state.  They  adopted  the  Ethiopian  cus- 
toms and  were  of  great  assistance  in  resisting  the  for- 
midable invasion  of  the  Persians. 

After  conquering  Egypt,  Cambyses,  in  525  B.  C.,  in- 
vaded Ethiopia,  without  having  made  adequate  pro- 
vision for  the  unknown  dangers  of  the  expedition.  In 
consequence  the  Persian  army  was  destroyed  by  famine 
in  the  desert. 

The  religion  of  the  Ethiopians  was  very  similar  to 
that  of  their  neighbors,  the  Egyptians.  Several  temples 
were  erected  to  the  worship  of  Ammon.  The  priest- 
hood comprised  the  sacred  caste,  and  in  them  was 
vested  all  political  power.  The  king  was  chosen  from 
among  themselves,  and  in  the  name  of  the  Gods  his  life 
was  always  at  their  disposal.  The  superstitious  African 
tribes  stood  in  great  awe  of  the  Ethiopian  priests,  and 
when  a priest  was  at  the  head  of  a caravan  it  was  never 
molested  by  the  savage  Nigritians. 

Ergamenes  became  king  early  in  the  3rd  century 
B.  C.  He  had  lived  for  a time  in  Greece  and  was  well 
instructed  in  the  Greek  philosophy.  He  had  also  visited 
Jerusalem,  and  while  there  was  so  impressed  with  the 
Jewish  faith  that  he  adopted  it  as  his  own.  Despising 
the  professions  of  the  priesthood,  he  stormed  their 
fortresses,  massacred  most  of  them,  and  established 
the  Jewish  religion. 


34 


Ancient  Empires. 


That  many  of  the  sovereigns  of  Ethiopia  were 
queens,  we  learn  from  the  chronicles  of  Augustus 
Gesar,  who  was  opposed  about  twenty  years  B.  C.,  by 
a horde  of  undisciplined  Ethiopians  led  by  a woman. 
The  superior  arms  of  the  Romans  brought  an  easy 
triumph,  but  an  honorable  peace  was  given  by  the  con- 
queror to  the  queen,  whose  name  was  Candace. 

Another  Queen  Candace  followed  Ergamenes,  and 
it  is  known  that  during  her  reign  her  confidential  ad- 
visor went  to  worship  at  Jerusalem.  While  there  he 
came  under  the  instruction  of  St.  Philip,  and  thus  be- 
came a convert  to  Christianity.  On  his  return  to  Ethi- 
opia, A.  D.  53,  he  made  Christianity  the  state  religion. 
Since  that  time  the  Christian  religion,  corrupted  by 
many  native  principles  and  rites,  has  prevailed  among 
the  descendants  of  the  Ethiopians,  now  known  as  the 
Abyssinians  and  Nubians. 

Their  sculpture  and  architecture,  in  its  rough  and 
colossal  forms,  very  much  resembles  that  of  the  An- 
cient Egyptians.  In  Nubia,  near  Derr,  is  the  remark- 
able rock-temple  of  Ipsambul.  This  massive  temple  is 
cut  from  a mountain  of  solid  rock.  The  inside  is 
adorned  with  immense  statues  and  painted  sculptures 
which  represent  triumphal  processions,  religious 
pageants,  battles  and  castles.  Four  colossi  are  on  the 
outside,  larger  than  any  in  Egypt  except  the  Sphinx. 
As  a curious  incident,  it  may  be  noted  that  this  rock- 
temple  resembles  the  famous  excavated  structures  of 
the  Hindus  in  the  Island  of  Elephanta,  near  Bombay. 

The  social  estate  of  the  ancient  Ethiopians  and  the 
modern  Abyssinians  contain  little  to  be  admired.  The 


The  Ethiopians. 


35 


Christianity  of  the  modern  Abyssinian  has  had  a con- 
stant struggle  against  Mohammedanism  in  regard  to 
marriage,  but  the  polygamist  practice  of  the  Arabs  pre- 
vails. 

Through  the  study  of  their  language,  modern  schol- 
ars have  learned  much  of  the  ethnic  relationship  of  the 
Ethiopians.  The  Abyssinian  language,  being  so 
nearly  one  with  the  Hymyarite  Arabs,  indicates  the 
same  ultimate  origin  as  the  Hebrews,  and  the  Ethiopic 
tongue,  as  learned  from  the  Amharic  inscriptions, 
shows  it  to  be  a member  of  the  southern  group  of 
Semitic  languages. 

In  the  early  ages  the  Abyssinians  were  Aryans.  In 
the  6th  century  the  Abyssinian  church  became  Mono- 
physite,  and  in  this  form  spread  over  Nubia. 

In  the  1 6th  century  the  Portuguese,  through  their 
missionaries,  endeavored  to  convert  the  Abyssinians 
to  'the  orthodox  standard.  Jesuit  missionaries  were 
established,  and  in  the  year  1624,  the  Abyssinian 
church  went  over  entirely  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 
The  authority  of  the  Pope  was  acknowledged,  however, 
only  for  a short  time,  when  ecclesiastical  independence 
was  again  proclaimed. 


THE  EGYPTIANS. 


Misraim,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ham,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  progenitor  of  the  Egyptians.  His  gov- 
ernment was  under  the  control  of  an  aristocratic  Priest- 
hood whose  members  were  the  patrons  of  arts  and 
sciences.  There  seems  to  have  been  three  distinct 
classes.  The  Priests,  the  soldiers  and  the  artisans.  The 
Priests  held  a powerful  influence  over  the  people 
through  the  means  of  religion,  and  the  military  to  have 
upheld  the  Priesthood  by  a wholly  arbitrary  power. 
For  the  first  two  centuries  there  does  not  survive  the 
name  of  a single  ruler.  The  ancient  sacerdotal  despot- 
ism is  supposed  to  have  been  overthrown  by  Menes,  a 
military  chieftain.  In  its  place  he  established  the  first 
civil  monarchy  about  twenty-four  hundred  years  be- 
fore Christ.  Menes  was  first  in  the  long  line  of 
Pharaohs.  Herodotus  and  Josephus  both  attribute  the 
founding  of  Memphis  to  Menes.  This  is  probably  the 
most  ancient  Egyptian  city.  Others  also  attribute  to 
his  enterprise  the  building  of  Thebes.  Most  of  the 
reign  of  Menes  seems  to  have  been  occupied  in  foreign 
wars  with  nations  unknown  to  history.  Numerous  tra- 
ditions record  that  he  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace. 
Beyond  question  he  protected  religion  and  erected  many 
temples.  The  frontiers  of  his  kingdom  he  defended 
with  great  walls.  He  dug  numerous  canals,  and  con- 
structed dikes  to  prevent  inundations  and  for  regulating 
the  overflows  of  the  Nile  upon  the  cultivated  lands. 


(36) 


The  Egyptians. 


37 


His  name  is  the  most  prominent  in  all  ancient  records, 
many  of  the  subsequent  monarchs  being  entirely  ig- 
nored. That  he  was  held  in  great  veneration  by  his  im- 
mediate posterity  is  attested  by  the  numerous  monu- 
ments which  still  endure. 

The  period  betwen  the  reign  of  Menes  and  the  en- 
trance of  Abraham  into  Egypt,  about  the  twenty-first 
century  before  Christ,  is  almost  blank  in  the  records  of 
that  country.  The  interpretation  of  hieroglyphic  in- 
scriptions has  corroborated  many  of  the  vague  tradi- 
tions and  established  the  fact  that  the  greatest  Egyptian 
Pyramids  were  erected  three  or  four  hundred  years  be- 
fore the  time  of  Abraham,  and  not  less  than  eight  hun- 
dred years  before  Moses.  Abraham  on  his  visit  to 
Egypt  was  received  with  the  hospitality  that  betokens 
a highly  advanced  nation.  Nearly  a century  before 
Abraham’s  visit,  the  Hycsos  or  Shepherd  Kings  had 
conquered  Lower  Egypt.  These  roving  people  came 
from  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  were 
probably  of  that  family  of  people  known  in  the  sacred 
scriptures  as  the  Philistines,  and  still  later  in  ancient 
history  as  Phoenicians. 

The  Hycsos  kings  continued  in  their  rule  over  Lower 
Egypt  for  a period  of  two  hundred  and  sixty  years, 
when  they  were  expelled  and  driven  back  to  Asia.  Dur- 
ing this  period  Thebes  was  the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt, 
and  it  appears  to  have  remained  wholly  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  native  Egyptians. 

It  was  a few  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Shep- 
herd Kings  when  Joseph  became  governor  under  one  of 
the  Pharaohs,  and  the  family  of  Jacob  was  given  the 
land  of  Goshen. 


Ancient  Empires. 


SESOSTRIS. 

While  the  Israelites  were  wandering  in  the  wilder- 
ness, Sesostris  was  the  King  of  Egypt.  Ancient  histo- 
rians represent  him  as  being  not  only  the  most  powerful 
ruler  Egypt  ever  produced,  but  also  one  of  the  most 
extensive  conquerors.  Amenophis,  the  father  of  Sesos- 
tris. having  a presentiment  of  the  coming  glory  of  his 
son,  omitted  nothing  that  might  contribute  to  his  popu- 
larity and  power.  Among  the  things  done  to  insure  a 
faithful  following  of  his  son,  Amenophis  ordered  all  the 
male  children  born  on  the  same  day  with  Sesostris  to  be 
taken  to  Court.  Under  the  influence  of  the  wisest 
teachers  to  be  procured,  Amenophis  caused  these  chil- 
dren to  be  brought  up  with  the  young  prince,  receiving 
the  same  attention  and  education.  It  is  said  that  seven- 
teen hundred  were  thus  trained  as  a body-guard  for 
Sesostris.  They  were  inured  from  infancy  to  hard  and 
laborious  life  that  they  might  one  day  be  prepared  for 
the  fatigues  of  war.  No  meal  was  allowed  to  be  taken 
until  they  had  given  certain  time  to  vigorous  exercise. 
Hunting  and  horseback  riding  were  their  chief  diver- 
sions; and,  as  soon  as  they  were  old  enough,  they  ac- 
companied military  expeditions  against  the  neighboring 
tribes.  When  Amenophis  died,  Sesostris  was  well  pre- 
pared for  the  great  career  that  followed.  The  plans  of 
Sesostris  embodied  nothing  less  than*  the  conquest  of 
the  whole  world.  His  first  care,  however,  was  to  pro- 
vide for  the  interior  tranquillityof his  country,  and  espe- 
cially to  win  the  love  and  devotion  of  his  people  by 
unexempled  afifability  and  equity. 

Egypt  was  divided  by  him  into  thirty-six  provinces ; 


The  Egyptians. 


39 


the  governor  of  each  being  intrusted  to  a wisely  selected 
person  whose  uprightness  and  fidelity  were  beyond 
doubt.  During  the  time  when  he  was  thus  securing  the 
faithful  integrity  of  his  people,  he  made  careful  and 
adequate  preparation  for  the  execution  of  his  vast  de- 
signs. Troops  were  assembled  and  drilled  in  all  the 
military  evolutions  then  known,  and  made  a part  of  the 
great  machine  through  which  he  hoped  to  become  mas- 
ter of  the  world.  His  army  consisted  of  six  hundred 
thousand  infantry  and  twenty-four  thousand  cavalry, 
with  twenty-seven  thousand  war  chariots.  This  army 
was  first  thrown  into  Ethiopia,  a country  south  of 
Egypt,  which  he  made  tributary,  and  then  forced  the 
inhabitants  to  pay  him  large  revenues  in  ivory  and  gold. 

He  next  attacked  the  maritime  cities  along  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  with  a 
fleet  of  three  or  four  hundred  vessels.  His  conquests 
by  land  still  continued,  and  in  a short  time  he  had  over- 
run Asia  and  advanced  into  Eastern  Judah  beyond  the 
points  reached  by  Hercules  or  Alexander.  Turning 
north  he  conquered  Armenia,  Cappadocia  and  subdued 
the  Scythians  in  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Colchos.  Near 
the  Euxine  Sea  he  founded  a colony  which  caused  the 
Egyptian  manners  to  prevail  in  that  country  for  many 
years.  Herocjptus  states  that  in  his  travels  through 
Asia  Minor  he  found  many  monuments  erected  by 
Sesostris  in  commemoration  of  victories.  In  several 
Asiatic  countries  there  were  found  columns  containing 
the  following  inscription : “Sesostris,  king  of  kings, 

and  lord  of  lords,  subdued  this  country  by  the  power 
of  his  arms.”  Several  pillars  of  this  kind  were  found  in 


40 


Ancient  Empires. 


Thrace,  and  others  show  that  Sesostris  penetrated  as 
far  as  the  Tamais,  and  that  his  empire  extended  from 
the  Ganges  to  the  Danube. 

Unlike  other  conquerors  he  made  no  effort  to  con- 
tinue his  power  in  the  countries  he  subdued,  but  was 
contented,  after  having  taken  possession  and  exacted 
tribute,  to  allow  the  subjugated  territory  to  resume  its 
former  government.  For  the  space  of  nine  years  he 
was  occupied  in  overrunning  the  world,  and  then,  as  if 
satisfied  with  his  invasions,  returned  to  Egypt.  There 
is  no  evidence  to  show  that  any  of  the  subjugated  ter- 
ritories were  retained  under  his  control. 

When  Sesostris  returned  to  his  kingdom  he  was 
crowned  with  glory  and  loaded  with  the  spoils  of  a sav- 
age and  depopulating  war,  in  which  he  had  despoiled 
whole  provinces  and  reduced  peaceful  nations  to  the  ut- 
most misery  and  distress.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  the  quiet  and  single  government  of  his  own  people. 
When  Egypt  passed  under  the  control  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  there  still  remained  many  monuments  testi- 
fying to  the  splendor  and  opulence  of  his  kingdom.  It 
is  said  that  in  his  old  age  he  became  blind,  and,  wearied 
with  the  infirmities  of  years,  he  committed  suicide,  after 
a brilliant  reign  of  thirty-three  years. 

EGYPTIAN  CIVILIZATION. 

Much  of  the  cultivation  and  attainments  of  the  an- 
cient nations  is  traceable  directly  to  the  influence  of  the 
Egyptians.  The  Greeks  were  instructed  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  the  Romans  by  the  Greeks.  The  influence 
exerted  upon  modern  civilization  by  the  cultivation  and 


The  Egyptians. 


41 


preservation  of  Egyptian  art  and  thought  through  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  cannot  be  estimated,  but  was  un- 
questionably very  powerful.  Aside  from  the  chronicles 
of  Manetho  and  other  sources  of  Egyptian  history,  the 
nature  of  Egyptian  remains  affords  adequate  presump- 
tion that  the  civilization  of  that  country  dates  from 
great  antiquity. 

The  functions  of  the  king  were  partly  civil  and  partly 
religious.  He  had  the  chief  regulation  of  all  that  per- 
tained to  the  worship  of  the  gods.  Priests  were  his 
deputies,  and  filled  the  offices  of  state.  They  were  both 
legislators  and  civil  judges;  they  imposed  taxes  and 
regulated  weights  and  measures. 

The  penal  laws  of  Egypt  were  uncommonly  severe. 
The  sacred  funeral  rights  were  not  conferred  until  a 
thorough  scrutiny  into  the  life  of  the  deceased  admitted 
a judicial  decree  proving  his  character.  One  extraor- 
dinary regulation  regarding  the  borrowing  of  money 
may  be  mentioned.  The  borrower  was  accustomed  to 
pledge  the  body  of  his  father  as  security,  and  all  funeral 
rights  to  the  parent  were  denied  if  the  son  failed  to  re- 
pay his  creditor. 

The  increase  of  population  was  everywhere  encour- 
aged by  law,  and  every  man  was  bound  not  only  to 
maintain  and  educate  his  children,  but  also  those  of  his 
slaves. 

The  Egyptians  had  a singular  attachment  to  ancient 
usages.  They  disliked  innovations,  and  strangers  were 
always  objects  of  jealousy  and  abhorrence. 

The  knowledge  of  the  useful  arts  and  the  cultivation 
of  the  sciences  preceded,  among  the  Egyptians,  many 


42 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  the  most  ancient  nations.  Architecture  was  early 
brought  to  the  greatest  perfection,  especially  in  their 
public  buildings,  pyramids  and  obelisks.  Owing  to  the 
.mildness  of  climate,  these  structures  suffered  but  little 
injury  from  time. 

Thebes,  probably  the  oldest  of  the  great  Egyptian 
cities,  was  one  of  the  most  magnificent  ever  built.  The 
Pyramids,  far  south  of  Thebes,  were  erected  nearly 
three  thousand  years  before  Christ,  and  were  doubtless 
the  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  earliest  sovereigns. 
Such  great  care  was  taken  of  the  dead,  because  the 
Egyptians  believed  that  the  soul  never  entirely  aban- 
doned the  body.  A process  of  embalming  was  there- 
fore brought  to  the  utmost  perfection,  and  the  bodies 
were  entombed  in  caves  and  catacombs,  where  they 
were  guarded  by  stupendous  structures,  too  massive  to 
be  the  object  of  art.  Though  art  in  Egypt  is  venerable 
from  its  great  antiquity,  yet  it  is  extremely  deficient  in 
beauty  and  elegance,  as  endurance  seemed  to  be  the 
chief  object  to  be  attained. 

In  painting  and  sculpture  the  Egyptians  were  but 
slightly  proficient,  and  they  were  entirely  ignorant  of 
the  construction  of  the  arch.  In  mathematics  they 
possessed  considerable  knowledge.  They  calculated 
eclipses,  divided  the  zodiac  into  twelve  seasons,  and 
had  some  idea  of  the  motion  of  the  earth.  The  theology 
and  sacred  documents  of  the  Priests  were  in  many  re- 
spects rational  and  sublime,  but  the  worship  of  the 
people  was  debased  into  the  most  absurd  superstitions 
and  their  morals  were  very  depraved.  The  national 
character  was  extremely  low,  and  was  much  despised 


The  Egyptians. 


43 


among  the  contemporary  nations.  The  cause  of  this 
may  be  attributed  to  their  isolation,  their  hatred  for  the 
arts  and  improvements  of  foreign  people,  and  their  an- 
tipathy to  all  innovations. 

PROCESS  OF  EMBALMING. 

Diodorus  gives  us  the  first  circumstantial  account  of 
the  Egyptian  process  of  embalming.  He  says  that 
many  persons  were  employed.  One  drew  the  brain 
through  the  nostrils,  by  an  instrument  prepared  for 
that  purpose ; another  emptied  the  bowels  and  intes- 
tines through  the  side  by  the  use  of  some  sharp  instru- 
ment, while  others  filled  these  cavities  with  desiccating 
and  preservative  perfumes  and  odoriferous  drugs.  This 
process  appearing  in  many  respects  both  cruel  and  in- 
human, they  were  compelled  to  run  away  as  soon  as  the 
operation  was  over  in  order  to  avoid  the  resentment  of 
the  relatives  and  mourners.  Those  who  were  employed 
in  filling  the  body  with  murrh,  cinnamon  and  the  dif- 
ferent spices  were  very  honorably  treated. 

There  were  many  processes  varying  in  completeness 
and  cost,  the  perfection  as  to  details  depending  upon  the 
rank  and  wealth  of  the  deceased.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  days  after  the  first  part  of  the  preparation  was 
done,  the  corpse  was  swathed  in  long  fillets,  and  glued 
together  with  thin  glue,  which  was  then  crusted  over 
with  perfumes  as  exquisite  as  could  be  afforded. 
Through  this  means  the  eyelids,  brows  and  lineaments 
of  the  face  were  preserved  in  a natural  state.  After  the 
completion  of  the  process  the  body  was  delivered  to  the 
relatives,  who  placed  it  in  an  open  chest,  which  was 


44 


Ancient  Empires. 


made  to  fit  very  closely  the  body.  This  casket  was  then 
set  upright  against  the  wall,  either  in  the  home  of  the 
relatives  or  in  a specially  prepared  sepulchre. 

The  sacred  asylum  of  the  tomb  could  not  be  pro- 
faned by  the  body  of  one  that  had  not  lived  an  upright 
life.  Therefore  when  the  body  was  ready  for  the 
sepulchre,  a trial  was  held  before  judges  appointed  for 
that  purpose,  in  which  the  entire  life  of  the  deceased 
was  canvassed.  If  it  was  found  that  the  body  was  un- 
worthy of  being  buried  among  the  justified,  it  was  re- 
turned to  the  relatives  to  be  disposed  of  otherwise.  If 
the  judgment  was  favorable  it  was  at  once  placed  in 
the  sacred  tombs. 

In  the  ceremonies  of  interment  a panegyric  on  the 
life  of  the  deceased  was  pronounced,  but  in  it  there  was 
no  mention  of  the  birth  of  the  deceased,  because  every 
Egyptian  was  believed  to  be  born  equally  noble.  As  a 
curious  instance  of  their  moral  ideas  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  gratitude  was  the  highest  esteemed  virtue. 
They  believed  that  happiness  in  the  coming  life  de- 
pended entirely  upon  well  doing  in  the  present  life. 
They  believed  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  but  at 
last  the  soul  must  come  to  trial  before  the  judgment- 
seat  of  the  gods.  Osiris  presided  over  the  trial,  at 
which  there  were  forty-two  gods  present  as  examining 
judges.  If  the  decision  of  this  divine  tribunal  proved 
favorable  the  soul  was  sealed  as  justified  and  perfect. 

The  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead  describes  the  Hall 
of  the  Two  Truths,  where  this  last  trial  takes  place. 
Addressing  the  Lord  of  Truth  the  soul  denies  having 
done  evil,  saying  “ I have  not  afflicted  any,  I have  not 


The  Egyptians. 


45 


told  falsehoods.  I have  not  made  the  laboring  man  do 
more  than  his  task.  I have  not  been  idle.  I have  not 
murdered.  I have  not  committed  fraud.  I have  not 
injured  the  images  of  the  gods.  I have  not  taken 
scraps  off  the  bandages  of  the  dead.  I have  not  com- 
mitted adultery.  I have  not  cheated  by  false  weights. 
I have  not  kept  milk  from  sucklings.  I have  not  caught 
the  sacred  birds.”  Then  turning  to  each  god  he  makes 
the  following  assertions  : “I  have  not  been  idle.  I have 
not  boasted.  I have  not  stolen.  I have  not  counter- 
feited, nor  killed  the  sacred  beasts,  nor  blasphemed,  nor 
refused  to  hear  the  truth,  nor  despised  God  in  my 
heart.”  Other  texts  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead  represent 
the  soul  as  saying : “I  have  loved  God.  I have  given 
bread  to  the  hungry,  water  to  the  thirsty,  garments  to 
the  naked  and  an  asylum  to  the  abandoned.” 

Brugsch  declares  that  a thousand  voices  from  the 
tombs  teach  most  of  the  sacred  virtues  of  the  Chris- 
tians. An  inscription  in  Upper  Egypt  says  : “He  loved 
his  father,  he  honored  his  mother,  he  loved  his  brethren, 
and  never  went  from  his  home  in  bad  temper.  He  never 
preferred  the  great  man  to  the  low  one.”  Another 
says : “I  was  a wise  man,  my  soul  loved  God.  I was  a 
brother  to  the  great  men  and  a father  to  the  humble 
ones,  and  never  was  a mischief-maker.”  At  Sais  there 
is  an  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  a priest  who  lived  in  the 
days  of  Cambyses,  which  says : “I  honored  my  father, 
I esteemed  my  mother,  I loved  my  brothers.  I found 
graves  for  the  unburied  dead.  I instructed  little  chil- 
dren. I took  care  of  orphans  as  though  they  were  my 
own  children.  For  great  misfortunes  were  on  Egypt  in 


46 


Ancient  Empires. 


my  time,  and  on  this  city  of  Sais.”  The  religious  creed 
of  a Pharaoh  at  Thebes  is  thus  described : “I  lived  in 
truth,  and  fed  my  soul  with  justice.  What  I did  to  men 
was  done  in  peace,  and  how  I loved  God,  God  and  my 
heart  well  knew.  I have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
water  to  the  thirsty,  clothes  to  the  naked,  and  a shelter 
to  the  stranger.  I honored  the  gods  with  sacrifices,  and 
the  dead  with  offerings.” 

MONUMENTS  OF  EGYPT. 

The  obelisks  are  quadrangular  pyramids  cut  out  of  a 
single  block  of  granite,  raised  perpendicularly  and  cov- 
ered with  inscriptions  and  hieroglyphic  symbols.  Many 
of  them  are  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  were  made  the 
chief  ornaments  of  Rome  by  the  conquerors.  The 
pyramids  are  more  lofty  and  still  more  astonishing  in 
their  structure.  Their  enormous  bulk  and  strength 
enabled  them  to  survive  the  dissolutions  of  time,  and 
the  inroads  of  barbarians.  The  largest  of  the  three 
great  pyramids  forms  a perfect  square,  each  side  of 
which  measures  about  700  feet  at  the  base.  The  per- 
pendicular height  is  500  feet,  and  its  summit,  although 
appearing  from  below  as  only  a sharp  point,  is  a square 
platform  measuring  twenty  feet  on  each  side.  This 
amazing  structure  is  composed  of  stones  of  extraor- 
dinary size ; large  numbers  of  them  being  thirty  feet 
long,  four  feet  high,  and  three  feet  wide.  Herodotus 
estimated  that  one  hundred  thousand  workmen  were 
employed  at  the  same  time  in  erecting  this  stupendous 
monument.  Diodorus  and  Pliny  both  assert  that  there 
were  even  a greater  number  of  workmen  than  this,  who 


The  Egyptians. 


47 


were  employed  for  three  months  and  then  dismissed,  to 
be  followed  by  another  levy  of  an  equal  number  of  men, 
continuing  in  this  succession  until  the  completion  of  the 
pyramid.  At  this  rate  it  took  thirty  years  to  complete 
the  work.  As  an  incident  of  the  cost,  we  are  told  that 
the  single  item  of  vegetables  furnished  to  workmen 
amounted  to  sixteen  hundred  talents ; that  is,  nearly  one 
million,  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

Herodotus,  however,  says  that  this  stupendous  work 
was  exceeded  by  the  labyrinth  which  he  himself  exam- 
ined. This  structure  contained  within  the  same  en- 
closure three  thousand  rooms,  twelve  of  which  were  so 
elaborately  and  magnificently  constructed  as  to  be  justly 
called  palaces.  Fifteen  hundred  of  these  rooms  were 
under  ground,  all  communicating  with  one  another  by 
such  a complication  of  circuitous  passages  as  to  make  it 
impossible  for  a stranger  to  find  his  way  out  unless  as- 
sisted by  a skillful  guide.  The  ceiling  and  walls  were 
all  composed  of  white  marble,  embellished  with  costly 
carvings. 

Another  of  the  remarkable  monuments  of  ancient 
Egypt  was  the  mausoleum  of  Osymandias,  one  of  the 
Egyptian  kings.  This  curious  structure  was  encom- 
passed with  a circle  of  gold  22  inches  wide  and  about 
six  hundred  and  seventy  feet  in  circumference.  On 
every  side  was  depicted  the  rising  and  setting  sun,  the 
moon  and  the  constellations.  Even  at  that  remote 
period  the  Egyptians  divided  the  year  into  twelve 
months,  consisting  each  of  thirty  days.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  they  added  five  days  to  complete  the  total  num- 
ber of  365  days.  The  precious  ornaments  of  the  sub- 


48 


Ancient  Empires. 


lime  and  costly  mausoleum  of  Osymandias  were  car- 
ried away  by  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  when  he  con- 
quered Egypt. 

In  Upper  Egypt  was  the  city  of  Thebes,  which,  in 
its  extent  and  magnificence,  was  itself  a world  of  won- 
ders. Even  if  allowance  is  made  for  the  exaggeration 
of  some  ancient  writers  that  it  had  one  hundred  gates 
and  could  send  forth  to  war  through  each  of  them  at 
the  same  time,  two  hundred  chariots  with  ten  thousand 
warriors — enough  is  certain  to  show  that  it  had  far 
more  than  one  million  inhabitants.  The  evidences  ob- 
tained by  recent  explorers  prove  that  it  had  a pro- 
digious variety  of  gigantic  statues,  porticos,  columns 
and  obelisks  sufficient  for  the  highest  idea  of  the  glory, 
riches  and  splendor  of  the  grandest  of  ancient  mon- 
archies. 


THE  HEBREWS. 

ABRAHAM  THE  FOUNDER  OF  THE  JEWISH  NATION. 

Noah  sent  forth  his  son  Shem  with  the  prophetic 
benediction  that  he  was  more  blessed  than  his  breth- 
ren. From  this  stock  came  Abraham,  the  progenitorof 
the  Messiah,  and  the  father  of  the  faithful.  He  was 
born  in  the  country  of  the  Chaldees,  and  in  the  midst  of 
an  idolatrous  and  corrupt  people  he  retained  the  wor- 
ship and  knowledge  of  the  true  God. 

With  his  family  and  his  flocks  he  journeyed  from  the 
Chaldaean  country  and  remained  for  a while  at  Haran 
and  Gerah,  where  his  father  died.  At  this  place  God 
bade  him  depart  from  his  people  and  go  into  the  land  of 
Canaan  where  he  would  find  a country  which  his  pos- 
terity should  inhabit.  Abraham  took  his  family  and 
his  nephew,  Lot,  and  lived  for  a time  in  the  promised 
land.  At  last  a famine  compelled  him  to  go  to  Egypt 
for  corn,  and  on  his  return  to  Canaan  he  divided  the 
country  they  inhabited  with  Lot,  taking  the  plain  of 
Mamre  for  himself  and  giving  the  valley  of  Jordan  to 
Lot.  Not  long  after  Chedorlaomer,  King  of  Elam,  the 
territory  afterward  called  Persia,  invaded  Canaan  and 
took  Lot  prisoner.  Abraham  immediately  armed  his 
trained  servants  and  making  an  unexpected  assault  on 
the  conqueror  recaptured  Lot  and  all  the  spoils. 

The  limited  domains  of  the  kings  at  that  time  may  be 
well  understood  from  the  fact  that  in  this  military  ex- 
cursion Abraham’s  army  consisted  of  only  three  hun- 


(49) 


50 


Ancient  Empires. 


dred  and  eighteen  fighting  men.  Sodom  had  now  be- 
come so  wicked  that  Lot,  by  divine  command,  abandoned 
the  Valley  of  Jordan,  and  the  wicked  cities  of  the  plain 
were  destroyed  by  fire.  Abraham  then  removed  from 
Mamre  and  went  to  Gerar  where  he  led  a peaceful  life 
among  his  herds. 

Abraham  had  two  sons : Ishmael,  who  is  classed  as 
the  father  of  the  Arabians,  and  Isaac,  who  became  his 
father’s  heir.  After  the  death  of  Abraham  the  family 
increased  in  numbers,  power  and  property,  so  that  the 
sons  of  Isaac  were  among  the  strongest  in  the  land. 
Chief  among  them  was  Jacob,  who  afterward  was 
called  Israel.  Jacob  had  twelve  sons,  among  whom 
he  distinguished  Joseph  with  blamable  partiality.  The 
brethren  envied  and  hated  this  favored  one  and  at  the 
first  opportunity  sold  him  as  a slave  into  Egypt.  After 
various  vicissitudes,  as  learned  in  Bible  history,  he  be- 
came Prime  Minister  to  Pharaoh,  the  king.  Famine 
again  recurring  in  the  land  of  Gerar,  Jacob  sent  his 
remaining  sons  into  Egypt  to  buy  bread.  Joseph 
treated  them  with  much  seeming  severity  until  he  had 
made  them  sensible  of  his  power ; then,  in  order  to  show 
them  that  he  was  too  generous  and  noble  to  harbor  re- 
venge, he  said  t®  the  brethren,  “I  am  Joseph,  your 
brother;  be  not  grieved,  God  sent  me  before  you.” 
With  the  next  year  Jacob  removed  to  Egypt  with  his 
whole  family,  including  Judah,  in  whose  line  was  the 
Messiah.  The  Egyptians  esteemed  very  lightly  their 
pastoral  occupation  and  Joseph  gave  them  all  a resi- 
dence in  the  land  of  Goshen. 

After  the  death  of  the  reigning  king  there  arose  an- 


The  Hebrews. 


51 


other  who  it  is  said  “Knew  not  Joseph.”  From  this 
date  the  Israelites  were  very  cruelly  treated,  neverthe- 
less they  increased  greatly  in  numbers. 

In  the  course  of  time  a deliverer  arose  in  the  person 
of  Moses.  A command  had  gone  forth  that  all  the  male 
infants  of  the  Jews  should  be  slain.  Jochebed,  the  wife 
of  Amram,  had  given  birth  to  a son,  which  she  con- 
cealed in  her  home  for  a time ; but,  this  being  exceed- 
ingly dangerous,  she  committed  him  in  pious  trust  to 
God,  and  then,  making  a little  ark  of  wicker  work,  she 
placed  the  child  within  it  and  set  him  among  the  flags 
on  the  bank  of  the  Nile.  Miriam,  his  younger  sister, 
sat  at  a distance  and  watched  to  see  what  might  befall 
him.  Pharaoh’s  daughter,  the  Princess  of  Egypt,  came 
to  the  stream  with  her  maidens  to  take  her  daily  bath. 
Hearing  the  child  cry,  some  of  her  attendants  found  it 
and  brought  it  to  the  Princess,  whose  compassion  and 
tenderness  was  moved  by  its  beauty.  Seeing  Miriam 
the  Jewish  girl  sitting  not  far  away,  the  Princess  sent 
for  her  to  come  and  tell  her  if  she  knew  of  a Jewish 
woman  who  could  be  the  child’s  nurse.  Miriam  imme- 
diately suggested  Jochebed.  The  Princess  not  know- 
ing that  it  was  the  child’s  mother,  took  her  as  its  nurse, 
adopting  the  child  as  her  son,  and  causing  him  to  be 
educated  in  all  the  learning  of  the  Egyptians.  With- 
out doubt  Moses  was  duly  informed  of  his  birth  by 
Miriam,  who  was  his  constant  attendant,  and  by  his 
mother  who  continued  to  be  his  nurse  ; for,  midst  all  the 
splendors  of  the  Court,  he  cherished  with  bitterness  the 
wrongs  of  his  kindred  and  planned'  to  set  them  free. 
His  indignation  could  no  longer  be  restrained  when  he 


52 


Ancient  Empires. 


was  compelled  to  witness,  in  one  of  his  walks  along  the 
Nile,  the  brutal  treatment  of  a Hebrew  by  an  Egyptian. 
Striking  the  offender  dead,  he  at  once  fled  from  Egypt 
and  went  into  the  land  of  Midian.  Here  God  spoke  to 
him  from  the  burning  bush  and  commanded  him  to  re- 
turn to  Egypt  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites.  This 
he  did,  and  after  the  visitation  of  many  judgments  upon 
the  obstinate  Pharaoh  that  king  was  compelled  to  con- 
sent to  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews.  No  sooner  had 
they  left  the  borders  of  the  country,  however,  than 
Pharaoh  repented  of  his  permission  and  pursued  them 
into  the  Red  Sea,  through  the  miraculously  divided 
waters.  When  the  Israelites  had  passed  out  on  the  far 
side,  the  wall  of  waters  closed  over  the  pursuers  and 
destroyed  them.  In  commemoration  of  this  deliverance 
of  the  Israelites  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  was  insti- 
tuted by  the  command  of  Jehovah. 

THE  JEWISH  THEOCRACY. 

Under  the  guidance  of  Moses  the  Israelites  left 
Egypt  and  directed  their  course  toward  Canaan.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  Mt.  Sinai  the  Ten  Commandments, 
known  as  the  Moral  Law,  were  given  to  Moses  under 
the  most  impressive  circumstances.  Through  divine 
command,  Moses  formed  a civil  constitution  and  made 
laws  for  the  government  of  the  new  nation.  The  gov- 
ernment thus  formed  acknowledged  no  head  but  that 
of  Jehovah,  thus  constituting  a pure  theocracy.  The 
vital  principle  of  their  laws  was  purity  in  religious  wor- 
ship, which  presented  an  insuperable  barrier  to  poly- 
thesism.  One  of  the  most  stringent  restrictions  was 


The  Hebrews. 


53 


that  they  should,  under  no  conditions,  intermingle  with 
other  nations,  which  at  that  time  were  universally 
idolatrous. 

During  the  following  forty  years  the  nation  wandered 
in  the  wilderness  and  the  fathers  who  had  come  out  of 
Egypt  descended  to  their  graves,  while  the  children 
were  fitted  by  their  constant  hardships,  to  contend  with 
the  powerful  tribes,  who  were  then  in  possession  of 
Canaan.  After  learning  strict  obedience  to  the  laws 
given  them  through  Moses  they  were  permitted  to 
emerge  from  the  wilderness  and  behold  before  them 
the  Land  of  Promise.  After  obtaining  a victory  over 
the  Midianites  on  the  borders  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
Moses  died.  He  was  incomparably  the  greatest  law- 
giver of  all  time,  the  first  of  historians  and  favored 
beyond  all  other  men  in  his  personal  intercourse  with 
the  Deity.  Moses  was  succeeded  by  Joshua  who  car- 
ried on  a seven  years’  war  of  conquest  successfully 
against  the  Canaanites.  The  divine  command  had 
called  for  a total  extermination  of  the  idolatrous  na- 
tives. This  had  not  been  fulfilled  and  its  result  was 
fatal  for  the  future  peace  of  the  Israelites.  The  land 
was  soon  surveyed  and  divided  equally  among  the 
tribes.  After  the  death  of  Joshua  the  government  was 
carried  on  by  chiefs  called  judges.  During  this  period 
the  Jews  frequently  lapsed  into  the  idolatry  of  the  sur- 
rounding nations,  and  were  compelled  to  contend  con- 
tinually with  the  tribes  who  dwelt  upon  their  borders. 
,The  most  renowned, among  these  judges  were  Deborah, 
Gideon,  Jepthah  and  the  prophet  Samuel.  At  the  end 
of  four  hundred  and  sixty  years  of  government  by  these 


54 


Ancient  Empires. 


judges  the  rebellious  Israelites  demanded  a king  and 
Saul  was  appointed.  He  carried  on  wars  successfully 
against  the  Amalekites  and  the  Philistines,  who  for 
more  than  forty  years  had  held  the  Israelites  in  subjec- 
tion. 

After  the  death  of  Saul,  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  hav- 
ing distinguished  himself  in  the  Philistine  wars,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Judah.  David  was  a young 
man,  cool,  deliberate  and  strong  in  counsel.  He  was 
of  tender  sensibility  and  felt  keenly  all  the  emotions  of 
love,  friendship  and  parental  fondness.  He  also  pos- 
sessed qualities  seemingly  incompatible.  His  physical 
beauty  was  delicate  almost  to  femininity,  and  yet  he  was 
bold,  and  terrible  in  arms.  His  accomplishments  were 
various  and  conspicuous.  His  knowledge  of  war  and 
politics  was  profound,  and  his  skill  in  music  was  such 
that  it  could  calm  the  madness  of  Saul.  His  talent  for 
poetry  was  of  a superior  order,  and  his  sacred  songs 
have  never  been  equaled.  To  him  we  owe  the  inimi- 
table beauty  and  sublimity  of  the  Pslams.  Such  a man 
was  David,  who  came  to  the  throne  of  Judah  beloved 
by  God  and  man.  Having  sinned  he  was  rebuked  by 
the  Prophet  Nathan,  after  which  he  bitterly  repented  in 
great  personal  humility.  Throughout  his  poems  there 
is  to  be  found  the  deepest  strain  of  penitence  and  piety. 

Under  Saul  the  purity  of  Jewish  worship  had  degen- 
erated, but  David,  becoming  sole  monarch  of  all  the 
tribes  of  Israel,  restored  the  original  worship  of  the 
fathers.  On  the  site  of  Jebus,  a strong  fortress  which 
he  took  from  the  Jebusites,  he  built  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  dominion.  Syria 


The  Hebrews. 


55 


was  made  a Jewish  province  and  the  frontiers  of  his 
sovereignty  were  extended  to  the  limits  of  the  promised 
land.  Commerce  revived  and  valuable  articles  of  mer- 
chandise came  into  his  kingdom  through  his  alliance 
with  the  Syrians.  With  him  originated  the  idea  of 
building  a great  and  costly  temple  for  the  worship  of 
God.  He  made  extensive  preparations  to  this  purpose, 
but  left  the  execution  of  his  plans  to  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Solomon.  This  eminent  ruler  made  wisdom  his 
chief,  and  during  his  reign  the  Jewish  nation  came  to  its 
utmost  height  of  splendor  and  power.  Although  he  was 
in  the  midst  of  bold  and  designing  enemies  his  triumph 
over  all  obstacles  was  complete  and  he  made  treaties 
with  the  neighboring  powers  which  brought  peace  and 
prosperity  to  his  kingdom.  Through  his  alliance  with 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  he  received  most  of  the  splendid 
decorations  which  adorned  his  magnificent  temple,  but 
in  his  later  years  Solomon  fell  into  many  grievous 
errors  and  sins,  through  which  he  both  distressed  his 
country  and  lost  the  favor  of  Jehovah. 

In  this  disastrous  period  the  country  became  impov- 
erished, although  Jerusalem  had  been  made  a great  cen- 
ter of  trade,  and  was  enriched  by  the  residence  of  the 
Court.  To  add  to  the  distress  of  the  kingdom,  Syria 
became  disaffected,  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Israel  and  set 
up  a government  of  its  own.  The  last  days  of  this  great 
king  were  still  further  disturbed  by  the  insurrections  of 
Jeroboam  and  the  Edomites.  Solomon  died  after  a 
reign  of  forty  years,  which,  taken  all  in  all,  was  the 
brightest  period  known  in  the  history  of  the  Jews. 

The  splendid  genius  of  David  had  extended  the  He- 


56 


Ancient  Empires. 


brew  dominion  from  Phoenicia  to  the  Red  sea,  and  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean.  Vast  treasures 
had  been  amassed  by  David,  so  that  when  Solomon 
came  to  the  throne  he  inherited  such  means  as,  in  the 
exercise  of  wisdom,  made  him  the  most  powerful  and 
wealthy  prince  of  his  age. 

But  the  alliance  with  Tyre,  enriching  as  it  did  the 
capital  and  the  court,  brought  such  luxury  and  the  con- 
sequent train  of  evils  that  an  inevitable  degeneration  of 
the  people  was  introduced.  When  Rehoboam,  the  son 
of  Solomon,  came  to  the  throne  the  burdens  of  the  peo- 
ple were  almost  too  grievous  to  be  borne.  To  a depu- 
tation praying  for  redress  he  made  a haughty  and  inso- 
lent answer:  “My  father  made  your  yoke  heavy,  but 

I will  add  to  your  yoke.” 

Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  had  fled  into  Egypt 
after  an  unsuccessful  insurrection  in  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon, was  recalled  to  lead  a revolt  organized  by  the  ten 
tribes.  This  being  successful  the  Hebrew  nation  be- 
came divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
According  to  prophecy  the  Messiah,  in  whom  the  Jew- 
ish nation  centered  their  hopes,  was  to  be  born  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  There  now  remained  to  Rehoboam, 
who  was  the  representative  of  this  family,  only  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin.  The  other  ten  tribes  constituted  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  under  Jeroboam.  Israel  was  the 
larger  kingdom  and  much  more  populous,  but  Judah 
possessed  the  chief  city  and  was  therefore  much  richer. 
The  power  of  these  two  kingdoms  being  thus  so  nearly 
equal,  their  bitter  contests  were  so  much  the  more  ob- 
stinate and  disastrous.  Jerusalem  exerted  a strong  in- 


The  Hebrews. 


57 


fluence  to  draw  subjects  away  from  Jeroboam,  and 
threatened  to  establish  in  his  kingdom  its  malevolent 
species  of  idolatry.  During  this  time  Judah  was  in- 
vaded by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  who  despoiled  the 
temple  and  the  king’s  palace.  At  the  end  of  a troublous 
reign  of  seventeen  years,  Rehoboam  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Abijah.  An  attempt  was  made  to  recover 
Israel  and  a subsequent  victory  was  obtained  over 
Jeroboam.  Asa,  the  successor  of  Abijah,  reformed  and 
puriAed  the  public  worship.  He  encouraged  the  sub- 
jects of  Jeroboam  to  return  to  their  former  allegiance, 
and  to  take  part  in  the  great  national  feasts  at  Jeru- 
salem. This  pious  and  capable  Prince  brought  peace 
and  prosperity  again  to  Judah.  But  the  Israelites  fell 
deeper  and  deeper  into  the  idolatrous  practices  of  the 
neighboring  nations. 

Samaria  was  founded  by  Omri  and  became  the  cap- 
ital of  Israel.  Benhaded  was  now  at  the  head  of  the 
independent  kingdoms  of  Syria.  Quarreling  with  the 
Israelites,  he  declared  war  and  invaded  Israel,  but  was 
repulsed  and  Anally  defeated  by  Ahab,  the  wicked  and 
idolatrous  son  of  Omri.  Ahab  had  espoused  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Phoenicians,  and  it  was  at  this  time  that  the 
Prophet  Elijah  fearlessly  encountered  the  four  hundred 
Priests  of  Baal  during  the  worship  of  the  Phoenicians. 
In  the  contest  before  the  people  between  Elijah  and  the 
Priests  of  Baal,  Are  from  Heaven  descended  upon  the 
sacraments  of  Elijah,  thus  verifying  his  claims  as  the 
true  Prophet  of  God.  Nevertheless  he  was  disregarded 
and  the  people  continued  in  their  idolatry. 

After  a long  reign,  Asa,  king  of  Judah,  died,  and 


58 


Ancient  Empires. 


was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Jehosaphat,  a worldly  and 
eminent  man,  who  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  king 
of  Israel,  and  caused  his  son,  Jehoram,  to  espouse 
Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab.  Jehu,  then  succeeding  to 
the  throne  of  Israel,  determined  to  destroy  the  family  of 
Ahab.  Ahaziah,  son  of  Athaliah,  who  had  become  king 
of  Judah,  was  among  the  slain  in  the  insurrection  that 
followed.  Athaliah,  in  order  to  be  supreme  in  Jeru- 
salem, caused  her  son’s  children  to  be  put  to  death,  thus 
seemingly  imperiling  the  prophecy  that  the  Messiah 
should  descend  from  the  house  of  David.  In  the  midst 
of  the  massacre  one  infant  was  saved  through  the  com- 
passion of  Jehoshaba,  wife  of  the  high  priest  Jehoida. 
This  child  was  concealed  for  six  years,  and  at  the  age 
of  seven  was  proclaimed  king  in  the  temple,  under  the 
name  of  Joash.  Hearing  the  uproar  of  welcome  to  the 
new  king,  Athaliah  rushed  into  the  temple  crying  trea- 
son, but  she  was  instantly  seized  and  soon  met  her  death. 

Following  the  elevation  of  Joash  to  the  throne  sev- 
eral stormy  wars  took  place  between  Israel  and  Syria, 
without  materially  affecting  the  general  state  of  the 
Jews.  The  chief  danger  to  the  existence  of  the  He- 
brew nation  came  from  the  direction  of  the  Assyrians. 

SUBJUGATION  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Under  the  ruins  of  the  first  Assyrian  Empire  in  747 
B.  C.,  after  an  existence  of  1,450  years,  were  raised 
the  kingdoms  of  Babylon,  Media  and  Ninevah.  Be- 
lesis, known  as  Nabonasser,  was  the  first  monarch  of 
Babylon,  and  Tiglath-Pileser  was  the  first  king  of 
Ninevah.  When  Judah  was  invaded  by  the  kings  of 


The  Hebrews. 


59 


Israel  and  Damascus,  Ahaz  solicited  aid  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser.  Taking  advantage  of  this  opportunity  he  at 
once  sent  an  army  into  Palestine,  overran  Syria,  cap- 
tured Damascus,  subjugated  Israel,  then  under  Hosea, 
and  possessed  himself  of  all  the  Hebrew  territory 
beyond  Jordan.  He  then  exacted  tribute  from  Ahaz, 
and  this  unfortunate  king  soon  found  that  in  freeing 
Judah  from  the  Syrians  and  Israelites  he  had  intro- 
duced a more  powerful  and  implacable  enemy.  Shal- 
maneser then  came  to  the  throne  of  Assyria.  He  con- 
tinued the  plan  of  his  predecessor  to  subjugate  the 
Hebrews.  Samaria  was  besieged  and  compelled  to 
surrender,  after  enduring  the  most  dreadful  horrors  of 
famine.  The  ten  tribes  that  had  revolted  from  Reho- 
boam,  son  of  Solomon,  and  left  the  Jewish  worship  for 
the  idolatry  of  the  Phoenicians,  now  suffered  the  pen- 
alty of  their  disobedience  and  were  carried  into  captiv- 
ity. They  were  transported  into  the  mountainous 
regions  of  interior  Asia,  and  from  that  time  they  ut- 
terly vanished  from  the  records  of  men.  The  fate  of 
these  lost  tribes  has  furnished  material  for  much 
curious  speculation,  but  not  one  tangible  fact  has  ever 
been  unearthed. 

Tyre,  then  a wealthy  commercial  city,  was  next  in- 
vested by  the  army  of  Shalmaneser.  The  besieged 
people  resisted  him  with  the  most  heroic  courage  for 
five  years,  at  which  time  the  siege  was  ended  by  the 
death  of  the  Assyrian  king.  Sennacherib,  succeeding 
him,  exacted  a heavy  tribute  from  Hezekiah,  king  of 
Judah.  He  then  attempted  to  conquer  Egypt  and  be- 
sieged Pelusium  but  the  Egyptians  so  victoriously  and 


60  Ancient  Empires. 

effectively  resisted  him  that  he  returned  and  demanded 
from  Hezekiah  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem.  The 
awful  fate  of  the  ten  tribes  stood  vividly  before  the 
memory  of  the  inhabitants  and  they  looked  forward 
with  consternation  to  the  destruction  of  their  city. 
Courage  was  now  given  to  the  demoralized  people  by 
the  exhortations  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  who  assured 
the  king  that  if  he  trusted  in  the  God  of  Israel  the 
power  of  the  Assyrians  should  be  broken.  In  answer 
to  this  promise  the  Lord  sent  at  midnight  the  Angel 
of  Death  to  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians.  In  the  morn- 
ing one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  Assyrian 
soldiers  lay  dead  upon  the-  plain.  Sennacherib  re- 
turned in  consternation  to  his  capital,  where  he  was 
soon  assassinated.  Manasseh,  son  of  Hezekiah,  now 
came  to  the  throne  at  Judah,  and  Essar-haddon,  son  of 
Sennacherib,  became  monarch  of  Assyria.  Babylon, 
having  become  weakened  by  internal  dissensions,  was 
taken  by  Essar-haddon  and  reunited  to  the  Empire. 
After  the  miraculous  visitation  upon  the  army  of  Sen- 
nacherib, Syria  and  Palestine  threw  off  their  alle- 
giance, but  Essar-haddon  reconquered  them,  removed 
the  Israelites  from  their  country  and  supplied  their 
place  with  an  idolatrous  people  from  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates. He  then  captured  Jerusalem  and  took  pris- 
oner Manasseh,  the  profligate  king  of  Judah,  but  a 
few  years  later  released  him  and  restored  him  to  his 
kingdom. 

In  contrast  to  the  other  rulers  of  the  Hebrews, 
Josiah  purified  the  national  worship,  repaired  the 
temple,  and  thoroughly  extricated  all  forms  of  idola- 


The  Hebrews. 


61 


try,  but  his  virtues  were  unable  to  turn  aside  the  fate 
decreed  against  the  rebellious  Jews.  In  the  wars  that 
followed  between  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  Josiah 
opposed  the  passage  of  the  Egyptian  army  through 
Judea.  The  result  was  a disastrous  battle  in  the  Val- 
ley of  Megiddo.  The  Jews  were  defeated  and  Josiah 
fled.  Necho,  the  Egyptian  king,  then  marched  on  to 
Assyria,  conquering  everything  in  his  course.  He 
then  turned  back  to  Jerusalem  and  took  that  city,  de- 
throning Jehoahaz,  youngest  son  of  Josiah,  and  made 
Jehoiakim  king.  The  weakness  of  the  Babylonians 
being  shown  by  the  easy  victories  of  Necho,  the 
Syrians  and  Jews  were  encouraged  to  throw  ofif  the 
Assyrian  yoke.  At  this  time  Assyria  was  governed  by 
Nabopolasser  in  connection  with  his  son,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. During  the  time  of  this  powerful  and  ener- 
getic Prince,  the  Assyrian  army  recaptured  from  the 
Egyptians,  Carchemish,  an  Assyrian  city  command- 
ing the  passage  of  the  Euphrates.  Syria  and  Palestine 
were  then  taken  and  added  to  the  Assyrian  dominion. 
Jerusalem  was  overthrown,  and  the  sacred  vessels  of 
the  temple  carried  to  Babylon.  A revolt  against  the 
Assyrian  rule  was  begun  by  Mattaniah,  known  as  Zede- 
kiah,  who  was  third  in  succession  from  Jehoiakim. 
The  Assyrian  army  appeared  once  more  before  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  For  nearly  a year  the  inhabitants 
maintained  a courageous  resistance,  hoping  vainly  for 
succor  from  Egypt.  The  city  was  at  last  taken  by 
storm,  and  the  Babylonians  were  given  full  reign  to 
their  hatred  and  vengeance. 

Zedekiah’s  children  were  murdered  in  his  presence. 


62 


Ancient  Empires. 


His  eyes  were  blinded  and  he  was  carried  in  triumph 
to  Babylon.  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  its  treasures 
taken  to  enrich  the  luxurious  Babylonians,  and  the  in- 
habitants were  scattered  over  the  empire  as  slaves  to 
the  Assyrians. 

Four  years  later  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged  Tyre, 
which  resisted  him  for  thirteen  years.  There  was 
little,  if  anything,  of  value  left  in  the  city  when  it 
was  at  last  taken,  for  the  inhabitants  had  retired  to  an 
island  not  far  distant  with  all  of  their  valuables,  where* 
they  built  a new  city  also  called  Tyre.  Egypt  being  rent 
by  intestine  wars,  was  now  invaded  by  the  Assyrians 
and  subdued.  The  path  of  the  victorious  idolaters  was 
easy  and  was  marked  with  such  horrible  devastations 
that  it  took  two  generations  for  the  people  to  recover. 

Nebuchadnezzar  returned  to  Babylon,  and,  as  re- 
lated in  the  Scriptures,  his  heart  was  so  hardened  with 
pride  that  he  was  driven  by  the  Almighty  from  the 
dwellings  of  human  beings  and  ate  the  food  of  beasts, 
until  he  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  “That  God 
ruleth  over  the  kingdoms  of  man.”  When  Cyrus  be- 
came monarch  of  the  Assyrians,  he  permitted  a colony 
of  Jews  to  return  to  Jerusalem  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
building the  temple.  This  colony  was  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Zorobabel,  descendant  of  a royal  Jewish  fam- 
ily. With  him  was  associated  the  High  Priest  Joshua. 
The  Jews  did  not  respond  as  enthusiastically  to  the 
iiberality  of  Cyrus  as  might  be  expected,  as  the  wealth- 
ier and  more  influential  part  of  the  Hebrew  people  re- 
mained beyond  the  Euphrates.  The  colony  that  had 
been  established  in  Samaria  by  Essar-haddon,  when  he 


The  Hebrews. 


63 


carried  away  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel,  were  bitterly  op- 
posed to  the  return  of  the  Jews,  and  at  the  death  of 
Cyrus  prevailed  on  his  son,  Cambyses,  to  forbid  them 
from  proceeding  with  the  reconstruction  of  the  temple. 
It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes  that 
this  interdict  was  removed.  Ezra  aroused  the  religious 
enthusiasm  of  the  Jews  for  the  pious  task  of  rebuild- 
ing the  temple,  and  many  new  colonists  returned  to 
Jerusalem.  Nehemiah  continued  this  good  work,  but 
it  progressed  very  slowly,  and  was  again  abandoned. 

While  Xerxes  was  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Empire 
Jerusalem  was  governed  by  the  satraps  of  Syria. 
When  the  Persian  Empire  began  to  decline  the  High 
Priests  increased  in  power  until  they  became  actual 
chiefs,  though  still  nominally  under  allegiance  to  Per- 
sia. Nehemiah,  in  his  jealous  zeal  for  the  purity  of 
the  Jewish  customs,  ordered  all  Jews  who  had  mar- 
ried heathen  wives,  to  divorce  them  or  quit  Jerusalem. 
.Of  this  number  was  Manesses,  son  of  Jehoida  the 
High  Priest,  who  refused  to  part  with  his  wife  and  so 
accompanied  her  to  her  father,  Sanballat,  who  was 
Governor  of  Samaria.  The  influence  of  the  colony  of 
Assyrians  that  had  been  planted  in  Samaria  was  such 
that  the  Jews  living  there  at  this  time  had  blended 
the  worship  of  God  to  such  an  extent  with  the  worship 
of  Baal  that  it  seemed  impossible  to  draw  the  people 
from  their  idolatry.  Sanballat  obtained  from  Darius 
Nothus  permission  to  build  a temple  at  Mt.  Gerizim, 
near  Samaria.  When  it  was  completed  he  sent  his 
son-in-law,  Manesses  as  the  High  Priest.  Bitter  en- 
mity at  once  arose  between  the  Jews  and  Samaritans 


G4 


Ancient  Empires. 


because  a superior  sanctity  was  claimed  for  this  temple 
to  that  of  the  one  in  Jerusalem.  During  the  conten- 
tions of  this  hostile  faction  in  Judea,  the  country  was 
invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great.  His  first  demand 
was  an  order  upon  Jerusalem  for  provisions  and 
troops.  In  answer,  Jaddus,  the  High  Priest,  said  that 
he  had  sworn  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Persia,  and  it 
was  impossible  for  the  oath  to  be  broken.  When  the 
siege  of  Tyre  had  been  successfully  completed,  Alex- 
ander marched  on  to  Jerusalem  to  take  vengeance  for 
this  disobedience  to  his  orders.  Unable  to  resist  the 
approach  of  the  victorious  Macedonian  King,  the  High 
Priest  cried  in  his  distress  to  Heaven  for  protection. 
In  the  night  a vision  came  to  him  through  which  he 
was  instructed  to  open  the  gates  of  the  city  and  strew 
the  way  of  the  victor  with  flowers.  Arraying  himself 
in  the  splendid  vestments  of  the  Levitical  Priesthood 
he  met  the  conqueror  at  the  head  of  a train  of  Priests 
robed  in  white.  To  the  astonishment  of  the  Jews  the 
triumphant  king  bowed  his  head  and  worshiped  with 
all  the  fervor  of  an  ardent  convert.  A friend  of  Alex- 
ander asked  him  why  he,  who  was  adored  by  others, 
should  himself  pay  such  homage  to  a Jewish  Priest. 
Alexander  answered,  “I  do  not  adore  him,  but  the 
God  whose  minister  he  is.  I knew  him  as  soon  as  I 
saw  him,  to  be  the  same  whom  I saw  in  a vision  in 
Macedonia,  when  I meditated  upon  the  conquest  of 
Persia.  He  then  assured  me  that  his  God  would  go 
before  me  and  give  me  success.”  Walking  into  the 
midst  of  the  Priests,  Alexander  embraced  them  and 
then  marched  with  them  into  Jerusalem.  Repairing 


The  Hebrews. 


to  the  temple  he  there  offered  sacrifice  in  the  most  sol- 
emn manner.  The  prophecy  of  Daniel  was  then  shown 
to  him,  and  it  was  interpreted  to  foreshow  that  he  was 
destined  to  overthrow  the  Persian  power.  The  Jews 
were  then  encouraged  to  make  requests  of  the  friendly 
monarch,  and  during  his  life  he  continued  to  show 
them  the  most  marked  favor.  Henceforth  the  history 
of  the  Jews  is  blended  with  that  of  their  conquerors. 


THE  ARABIANS. 


The  Hebrews  and  the  Arabians  are  believed  to  have 
had  the  same  Mesopotamian  origin.  Esau  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  progenitor  of  the  Edomites ; Amalek, 
his  grandson,  the  founder  of  the  Amalekites,  and 
Moab  and  Ammon,  sons  of  Lot,  were  the  fathers  of  the 
Moabites  and  Ammonites.  Some  ethnologists  present 
the  theory  that  these  Arabians  are  African  in  their 
origin,  while  others  give  good  reasons  for  the  belief 
that  they  are  Chaldaean.  However,  one  signal  fact  is 
conceded  that  no  other  family  of  men  ever  retained 
unbroken  possession  of  their  land  for  so  long  a time. 
Certain  portions  of  Arabia  have  never  been  in  subjec- 
tion to  foreigners.  The  Arab  stock  was  planted  in  the 
peninsula  before  the  Abrahamic  tribes  migrated  to 
Canaan.  The  earliest  historians  of  the  Hamitic  and 
Aryan  races  noted  the  presence  of  these  people  in 
Arabia.  They  were  known  to  the  primitive  Hebrews 
who  spoke  of  them  as  “a  distant  people,  rich  in  frank- 
incense, spices,  gold  and  precious  stones.”  The  in- 
scriptions of  the  Egyptians  written  before  the  six- 
teenth century  B,  C.,  give  accounts  of  wars  and  other 
relations  with  the  people  of  Punt  as  they  called  Arabia. 
Herodotus  gives  a lengthened  description  of  the  cus- 
toms and  manners  of  the  Arabians ; while  Artemidorus 
of  Ephesus,  and  Diodorus  enter  very  minutely  into 
their  character  and  manner  of  living.  Pliny  says, 
“strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  Arabs  live  equally  by  plun- 


(66) 


The  Arabians. 


67 


der  and  trade.  What  they  get  from  their  orchards 
and  palm  groves  and  from  sea  they  sell ; but  they  pur- 
chase nothing  in  return.”  Amm^anus  Marcellinus 
speaks  of  the  people  and  country  in  this  way : “The 

Arabs  extend  themselves  from  the  Euphrates  to 
Egypt.  They  go  naked  with  only  a colored  apron 
around  the  body  reaching  to  the  middle.  Every  man 
is  a warrior.  On  their  swift,  fine  limbed  horses  and 
their  camels  they  ride  in  all  directions.  They  do  not 
abide  long  in  any  one  place.  Without  settled  abodes 
they  wander  to  and  fro,  and  their  whole  life  is  nothing 
but  a flight.  Of  bread  and  wine  the  most  part  of  them 
know  nothing  whatever.” 

Many  other  historians  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  Arabians,  but  always  from  the  traveler’s  point 
of  view.  Owing  to  their  nomadic  habits,  which  dif- 
fused their  power  rather  than  concentrated  it,  they 
never  became  conquerors,  or  attained  such  wealth  as 
to  incur  the  cupidity  of  invaders. 

Arabia  has  thirty-two  native  spice-bearing  trees, 
and  its  gold  deposits  were  the  richest  known  in  an- 
tiquity, but  the  Arabian  civilization  was  lacking  in 
the  stability  which  was  necessary  to  acquire  wealth 
and  strength.  Their  history  illustrates  the  inaptitude 
of  the  Semitic  race  for  the  development  of  national 
power.  It  was  not  until  the  rise  of  Islam  that  the 
necessary  unity  and  fixity  of  purpose  was  attained  by 
that  restless  people.  Even  then,  it  was  the  Northwest 
of  Arabia  which  built  up  the  great  Mohammedan 
power.  Here  lived  the  Saracens  whose  names  became 
applied  to  most  of  the  Arabian  nations.  In  the  hope 


68 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  plunder,  they  forsook  their  deserts  and  were  alter- 
nately the  support  and  terror  of  Persia  and  Rome. 
They  sold  their  services  as  mercenaries  to  the  highest 
bidder,  and  their  bravery  usually  resulted  in  victory. 

The  persecuted  Christians  of  the  first  six  centuries 
fled  for  safety  into  Arabia,  and  Christianity  thus  be- 
came the  prevailing  religion.  It  was,  however,  cor- 
rupted by  the  most  absurd  superstitions  common  to  the 
people,  and  the  greatest  moral  depravity  prevailed 
among  both  priests  and  people.  The  country  was  in 
this  deplorable  condition  when  Mahomet  appeared, 
with  a religion  better  adapted  to  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  people. 

This  remarkable  man  was  a native  of  Mecca,  with- 
out education  but  with  great  mental  talents.  When 
about  forty  years  of  age,  he  proclaimed  that  he  had 
received  a divine  commission  for  the  propagation  of  a 
new  religion.  At  this  time,  in  A.  D.,  609,  he  withdrew 
to  a place  of  retirement,  where  he  affirmed  that  he  held 
continual  conference  with  the  angel  Gabriel.  These 
discourses  he  collected  into  a volume  which  became 
the  Mahometan  Bible. 

However,  the  basis  of  his  entire  creed  was  laid  in 
the  two  leading  doctrines  of  his  religion,  which  were, 
“There  is  but  one  God  and  Mahomet  is  his  prophet.” 
He  did  not  deny  the  Jewish  or  Christian  scriptures, 
but  claimed  merely  to  supercede  them  with  a religion 
better  adapted  to  the  times.  According  to  his  doctrine 
Abraham,  Moses  and  Jesus  had  been  divinely  com- 
manded to  teach  mankind,  but  he,  himself,  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  prophets.  He 


The  Arabians. 


69 


retained  many  of  the  rites  of  Judaism  and  adopted 
some  of  the  morality  of  the  Christian  gospel,  but 
many  of  the  Arabian  superstitions  were  cleverly  inter- 
mingled. His  immediate  success  was  doubtless  owing 
largely  to  the  great  latitude  which  he  gave  to  licen- 
tious indulgences,  and  to  the  promise  to  the  soldier 
dying  in  his  cause  that  he  should  go  straight  to  a 
paradise  of  sensual  pleasures.  He  inculcated  the 
strictest  fatalism  and  stimulated  the  warmest  enthusi- 
asm and  devotion  by  the  assurance  of  a martyr’s  crown 
to  all  who  should  die  in  his  service. 

The  fundamental  doctrine  upon  which  his  religion 
was  founded  is  that  “To  fight  for  the  faith  is  an  act 
of  obedience  to  God.”  Therefore,  the  ferocious  and 
bloody  ravages  of  the  Saracens  or  Mohammedans 
became  almost  irresistible  as  religious  crusades  or 
Holy  wars.  It  let  loose  a reign  of  natural  fanaticism 
and  barbarism. 

The  first  converts  of  Mahomet  were  his  wife, 
Kadija,  and  his  slave,  Zeid.  To  these  were  soon  added 
his  cousin  and  son-in-law,  the  famous  Ali,  and  his 
father-in-law,  Abu  beker,  who  was  a man  of  great  in- 
fluence. At  the  end  of  three  years  were  added  only 
ten  more,  but  they  were  men  of  wealth  and  power. 
A popular  tumult  was  raised  against  him  at  Mecca, 
and  in  order  to  save  his  life  he  fled  in  disguise  to 
Medina.  This  flight  or  Hegira  is  the  Mohammedan 
Era  corresponding  to  A.  D.  622.  Medina  received 
him  as  a man  inspired  of  God,  and  he  there  assumed 
the  sacerdotal  and  regal  office.  An  army  of  followers 
was  soon  at  his  command,  and  he  began  to  propagate 


70 


Ancient  Empires. 


his  religion  according  to  his  doctrines  by  the  sword. 
The  caravans  passing  through  Arabia  were  the  first 
objects  of  his  attacks,  and  by  this  wholesale  robbery 
his  soldiers  were  greatly  enriched.  Great  numbers  in 
the  hope  of  booty  now  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  he 
marched  to  the  city  of  Mecca,  which  he  captured  and 
entered  in  triumph,  about  the  year  629.  From  this 
time  until  his  death,  he  was  constantly  among  his 
soldiers  in  the  field,  arousing  their  enthusiasm  and 
carefully  disciplining  them  as  warriors.  In  a short 
time  he  subdued  Arabia,  and  completed  the  conquest 
of  Syria.  Ten  years  after  the  flight  from  Mecca  to 
Medina  he  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  His  great 
success  was  accomplished  in  the  inflexible  severity 
which  he  exercised  toward  the  vanquished.  Three 
conditions  were  always  offered  to  those  whom  he 
threatened  with  war.  They  must  adopt  his  religious 
system,  pay  heavy  tribute,  or  risk  the  fortunes  of  war. 
To  those  whom  he  was  forced  to  fight,  no  quarter  was 
given.  Only  the  women,  children  and  aged  persons 
were  spared,  and  these  were  sold  into  slavery. 

After  Mahomet  died  his  father-in-law  Abubeker, 
who  had  risen  to  great  repute  among  the  Arabs,  be- 
came the  first  caliph,  this  title  signifying  in  Arabic, 
successor  or  vicar.  He  adhered  strictly  to  the 
methods  of  Mahomet,  and  pushed  forward  his  con- 
quests with  unremitting  severity  and  vigor.  The  chief 
cities  of  Syria,  Bostra,  Palmyra  and  Damascus,  which 
had  not  been  taken  in  the  time  of  Mahomet,  were  be- 
sieged and  captured  by  Kaled,  commander  of  the  Sara- 
cenic forces.  The  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword, 


The  Arabians. 


71 


and  the  cities  were  at  once  occupied  by  the  faithful. 
In  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  Abubeker  died  in  the 
sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  having  named  Omar  his 
successor  or  second  caliph. 

Omar  was  fortunate  in  having  the  assistance  of  the 
celebrated  general  Obediah,  who,  in  one  campaign, 
completed  the  conquest  of  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Mes- 
sopotamia  and  Chaldaea.  In  the  next  campaign  he  re- 
duced the  whole  of  Persia,  and  his  army  under  Amrou 
took  Alexandria  and  subdued  Egypt.  At  this  time 
most  of  the  learned  men  of  the  world  were  gathered  at 
Alexandria,  because  of  the  great  library  which  con- 
tained more  than  half  a million  volumes.  Amrou, 
when  about  to  sack  the  city,  was  waited  upon  by  a 
deputation  of  scholars  who  prayed  him  to  spare  the 
precious  manuscripts.  Not  being  sure  of  what  he 
should  do,  Amrou  wrote  to  the  caliph  for  directions 
respecting  the  books.  Omar  answered  that  if  they 
agreed  with  the  Koran  they  were  useless ; and  if  they 
differed  from  it  they  were  dangerous,  in  either  case 
they  should  be  destroyed.  Accordingly  these  books, 
which  contained  the  gathered  intelligence  of  antiquity, 
were  distributed  throughout  the  city  and  for  six 
months  served  to  warm  the  city  baths.  During  the 
reign  of  Omar,  which  lasted  ten  years,  he  reduced 
thirty-six  hundred  cities  and  villages  to  his  obedience ; 
demolished  four  thousand  Christian  temples,  and  in 
their  stead  erected  one  thousand,  four  hundred 
mosques.  Finally,  he  was  assassinated,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Othman,  who  added  Bactriana  and  part  of 
Tartary  to  the  dominion  of  the  caliphs.  At  the  death 


72 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  Othman,  Ali,  who  had  married  Fatima,  daughter 
of  Mahomet,  was  elected  to  the  Caliphate.  His  reign 
was  only  five  years  in  duration,  but  he  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  bravest  and  most  virtuous  of  the  caliphs. 

In  half  a century  the  Saracens  exercised  dominion 
over  an  empire  more  extensive  than  then  remained  to 
the  Romans.  Within  a century  after  the  flight  of 
Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  the  dominion  of  the 
caliphs  extended  from  India  to  the  Atlantic  through 
the  widely  distant  regions  of  Persia,  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Northern  Africa  and  Spain. 
During  the  reign  of  Ali  occurred  the  schism  in  the 
ranks  of  Mohammedans,  which  still  exists.  Abu- 
beker,  Omir  and  Othman  were  treated  as  usurpers  by 
the  partisans  of  Ali.  The  opponents  of  Ali  named 
their  adversaries  shiites  or  sectaries,  styling  themselves 
sonnites  or  traditionaries,  because  they  hold  in  equal 
veneration  with  the  Koran,  and  Mahomet,  the  first  r 
three  caliphs  and  their  doctrines.  The  shiites,  ac- 
knowledged the  Koran  only,  and  the  two  parties  hate 
and  anathematize  each  other  with  a fierceness  and 
fanaticism  equal  to  that  which  they  visited  upon  the 
people  of  other  religions. 

The  Persians  are  of  the  sect  of  Ali ; the  Turks  are 
sonnites,  and  Ottomans ; the  latter  holding  Othman 
in  special  reverence.  The  seat  of  the  Mussulman 
sovereigns  was  removed  by  Ali  from  Mecca  to  Cufa, 
on  the  Euphrates.  In  768  Almansor  changed  the  seat 
of  government  from  Cufa  to  Bagdad.  Since  that  time 
the  caliphs  of  that  sect  are  styled  caliphs  of  Bagdad. 
Next  to  the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad,  that  of  Cordova,  in 


The  Arabians. 


73 


Spain,  was  the  most  illustrious  in  Saracenic  history. 
Almansor,  the  second  caliph  in  the  sect  of  Ali,  made 
Bagdad  the  greatest  and  most  splendid  city  in  the 
world.  He  was  a liberal  partisan  of  learning  and 
science,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  their  cultivation 
among  the  Saracens.  Haroun  A1  Raschid,  fourth  of 
the  new  dynasty,  reigned  from  A.  D.  781  to  805.  He 
was  the  most  illustrious  of  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad.  The 
splendor  of  his  court  was  unexcelled,  and  he  was  re- 
nowned for  the  care  with  which  he  sought  the  ends 
of  justice  among  his  people,  while  protecting  and  en- 
couraging learning.  Although  he  was  surnamed  The 
Just,  he  ravaged  the  territories  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
with  great  cruelty.  His  statesmanship  was  not  below 
his  prowess  as  a warrior,  and  upon  the  revival  of  the 
Western  Empire  he  sought  an  alliance  with  Charle- 
magne. Among  the  presents  sent  by  Haroun  A1 
Raschid  to  Charlemagne,  was  the  first  clock  that  had 
ever  been  seen  in  Europe.  His  name  is  familiar  to 
the  world  as  the  hero  of  the  Arabian  Nights’  Enter- 
tainment. 

Almamon,  the  son  and  successor  of  Haroun  A1 
Raschid,  added  greatly  to  the  glory  of  Bagdad,  and 
enriched  the  learning  of  his  splendid  court  by  the 
scholars  of  all  nationalities  which  he  made  welcome  at 
his  court.  His  mathematicians  believed  the  world  to 
be  round,  and  they  made  calculations  first  in  the  plains 
of  Sinaar,  and  then  in  those  of  Cufa,  in  both  of  which 
they  estimated  the  circumference  of  the  earth  to  be 
twenty-four  thousand  miles. 

In  the  year  823  the  Saracens  conquered  the  Island 


74 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  Crete,  and  for  more  than  a century  made  it  a 
market-place  for  the  sale  of  captives  taken  in  their 
wars.  Its  modern  name,  Candia,  is  derived  from 
Chamdak,  the  name  of  their  principal  fortress  in  the 
island.  The  Saracens  of  Africa  in  827  attacked  Sicily. 
The  western  part  of  the  island  was  overrun  and  the 
splendid  harbor  of  Palermo,  was  for  nearly  a century 
and  a half  made  the  rendezvous  for  their  piratical 
squadrons.  The  entire  island  was  then  under  Moslem 
rule,  and  the  Greek  language  and  literature  gave  place 
to  that  of  the  Islam.  The  piratical  squadrons  issuing 
from  the  ports  of  Sicily,  ravaged  the  coast  of  Italy, 
pillaged  one  hundred  and  fifty  towns,  and  the  victori- 
ous Arabians  fought  their  way  even  to  the  walls  of 
Rome.  Pope  Leo  IV.  secured  an  alliance  of  the  Italian 
maritime  states,  and  in  849  an  allied  fleet  was  sent 
against  the  Saracens  off  the  port  of  Ostia.  The  allied 
fleet  was  defeated,  but  immediately  after  this  a violent 
tempest  destroyed  the  Arabian  galleys.  However, 
the  Saracens  were  able  to  establish  themselves  in 
Southern  Italy,  and  if  the  caliphites  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Mohammedans  had  been  united,  Rome 
would  have  fallen  and  the  history  of  the  world  greatly 
changed. 

The  power  of  the  caliphs  began  to  be  weakened  by 
dissensions  and  quarrels,  which  compelled  them  to  de- 
vote more  of  their  energy  to  the  task  of  upholding 
their  authority  than  in  following  up  their  conquests. 
With  the  diminishing  of  their  warlike  enterprises  other 
activity  sprang  up  among  them.  Learning  was  not 
generally  diffused  among  them,  but  their  achievements 


The  Arabians. 


75 

in  science  and  literature  were  greater  than  was  ac- 
complished anywhere  in  Christendom. 

In  all  Mohammedan  cities  from  Samarcand  to  Cor- 
dova, libraries  and  colleges  were  established,  and  the 
Greek  philosophies  were  translated  into  Arabic,  many 
of  the  original  works  being  afterward  lost,  were  pre- 
served only  through  the  version  of  the  Arabians.  They 
possessed  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  Plato,  Euclid, 
Apollonius,  Ptolemy,  Hipprocrates  and  Galen.  They 
excelled  in  mathematics  and  astronomy  from  the  time 
of  Abbassides  to  that  of  Tamarlane.  The  Arabians 
made  the  greatest  advance  of  any  ancient  people  in 
medicine.  In  the  city  of  Bagdad  alone  eight  hundred 
and  sixty  physicians  were  licensed  and  carried  on  a 
lucrative  practice.  Their  skill  was  such  that  in  Spain 
the  life  of  the  Catholic  Princess  was  entrusted  to  the 
skill  of  the  Saracens,  and  the  School  of  Salerno  was 
famous  over  all  Europe.  The  science  of  chemistry 
originated  with  the  Saracens,  and  they  first  named 
and  used  alembic  for  the  purposes  of  distillation.  They 
set  the  world  to  searching  for  the  elixir  of  immortal 
life,  and  for  the  means  of  transmuting  metals.  During 
the  tenth  century  the  Caliphate  of  Cordova  reached 
its  greatest  strength,  while  the  Eastern  caliphate  was 
becoming  more  weak  and  powerless,  the  Caliph  of 
Bagdad  becoming  reduced  to  the  position  of  a petty 
prince.  In  A.  D.  1055  he  asked  aid  of  Togrul  Beg, 
Sultan  of  the  Turks,  against  the  encroachments  of 
neighboring  tribes,  and  the  tyranny  of  his  own  troops. 
The  Sultan  came  to  his  relief  and  the  Caliph  rewarded 
him  by  transferring  to  him  all  the  temporal  power 


76 


Ancient  Empires. 


that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  caliphats.  This  made 
the  Turkish  Sultan  master  of  Western  Asia,  and  ac- 
knowledged leader  of  Islam. 

Alparslan,  nephew  and  successor  of  Togrul  Beg, 
defeated  and  took  prisoner  the  Roman  Emperor, 
Romanus,  in  1071,  thus  extending  his  dominions  to  the 
Hellespont.  His  son,  Malekshah,  came  to  the  throne 
in  1072.  He  was  a bold  and  energetic  leader,  and  with- 
out doubt  the  greatest  prince  of  his  age.  He  extended 
his  empire  over  India  to  the  borders  of  China.  At  his 
death  there  were  a series  of  civil  wars,  and  his  exten- 
sive empire  was  divided  into  four  parts. 

With  regard  to  results,  the  most  important  conquest 
of  the  Turks  was  that  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  a Scythian  adventurer,  named  Zinghis  Kahn, 
at  the  head  of  a vast  horde  of  Moguls  and  Tartars, 
came  from  Eastern  Asia  and  overran  all  the  country  to 
the  borders  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  establishing  the  great 
Mogul  Empire.  He  died  in  1227,  and  his  grandson, 
Kublai  Khan,  completed  the  conquest  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  adding  all  the  Southern  province  to  his 
dominion  and  threatening  to  overwhelm  the  West. 
This  great  Mogul  Emperor  entertained  Marco  Polo, 
the  renowned  Venetian  traveler,  at  his  court,  and  he 
received  an  embassy  from  the  Pope,  with  which  he 
agreed  to  allow  Christian  missionaries  to  settle  in 
China. 

Octia,  the  son  of  Zinghis  Khan,  selected  an  army  of 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  with  the  pur- 
pose of  overrunning  Europe.  They  devastated  the 
country  from  Livonia  to  the  Black  Sea,  Moscow  and 


The  Arabians. 


77 


Kiev  being  destroyed  in  his  course.  The  Moguls  then 
passed  through  Poland  to  the  borders  of  Germany, 
where  they  were  met  by  the  followers  of  the  king  of 
Poland,  the  Duke  of  Silesia,  and  the  Grand  Master  of 
the  Teutonic  Knights.  A final  battle  was  fought  at 
Liegnitz,  in  which  the  Moguls  were  victorious.  Their 
losses  compelled  them,  however,  to  abandon  Germany 
and  turn  southward  into  Hungary  A.  D.  1241,  where 
King  Bela  IV.  was  defeated  and  the  whole  country 
north  of  the  Danube  devastated. 

Baton  then  almost  depopulated  the  adjacent  terri- 
tory of  Servia,  Bosnia  and  Bulgaria,  marching  back 
to  the  Volga  on  the  death  of  Oitai,  A.  D.  1245.  At  this 
time  Kublai  Kahn  was  sovereign  over  the  most  ex- 
tensive empire  ever  known.  It  embraced  nearly  the 
whole  continent  of  Asia  and  stretched  through  Europe 
to  the  Baltic  Sea.  After  his  death  this  vast  empire 
was  divided  among  his  lieutenants,  and  in  the  four- 
teenth century  there  arose  in  the  ruins  a power  almost 
as  formidable  and  ferocious — that  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks. 


THE  LYDIANS. 


Among  the  various  Aryan  nations  that  inhabited 
Asia  Minor,  Lydia,  at  first  called  Maconia,  ultimately 
became  the  most  famous  and  powerful.  The  first  in- 
habitants of  this  territory  to  appear  in  the  annals  of 
history  migrated  from  the  East,  the  migrating  tribes 
being  all  nearly  equal  in  power.  As  Asia  Minor  is 
divided  into  natural  sections  by  mountain  ranges,  it 
was  not  favorable  to  the  consolidation  of  tribes  into  a 
powerful  kingdom.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  in  his  time 
Asia  Minor  was  divided  up  among  thirty  nations.  The 
Phrygians  were  doubtless  the  first  Aryan  immigrants. 
They  came  from  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  bringing 
with  them  traditions  of  the  deluge,  quite  similar  to  the 
scriptural  narrative.  Before  the  time  of  Homer  the 
Phrygians  had  many  well  built  towns,  and  pursued  a 
flourishing  commerce.  Their  monarchy  was  organ- 
ized B.  C.  750,  if  not  earlier,  and  their  capital  was  at 
Gordium,  on  the  Sangarius  river.  The  kings,  most 
noted  in  the  fabulous  portion  of  Lydian  history,  were 
Gordias  and  Midas.  As  Lydia  grew  powerful  Phrygia 
declined  and  became  subject  to  the  Lydians  B.  C.  560. 

In  the  southeastern  part  of  Asia  Minor  there  was 
a rich  and  fertile  country,  known  as  Cilicia,  which  was 
devoted  entirely  to  agriculture.  It  was  an  independent 
territory  until  subdued  by  the  Assyrian  king,  Sargon, 
about  B.  C.  71 1.  Ten  years  later,  because  of  a revolt, 
it  was  ravaged  by  Sennacherib,  who  founded  in  B.  C. 


(78) 


The  Lydians. 


79 


685,  the  city  of  Tarsus.  It  successfully  maintained  its 
independence  against  all  the  efforts  of  the  Lydians, 
but  was  overcome  by  the  Persians  during  the  reign  of 
Cambyses,  the  son  of  Cyrus. 

Lydia  was  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula. 
Sardis  was  its  capital,  and  its  principal  cities  were 
Magnesia,  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Sipylus,  Thayatara,  and 
Philadelphia.  Ephesus,  on  the  coast,  was  chief  of  the 
Greek  cities. 

The  origin  of  Lydian  riches  came  from  the  rich 
supply  of  gold  which  was  found  in  the  sands  of  the 
Pactolus,  a tributary  of  the  Hermus  river.  Gold  was 
also  found  in  considerable  quantities  on  the  slopes  of 
Mt.  Tmolus,  and  was  washed  from  the  sands  in  the 
streets  of  Sardis,  the  capital,  which  was  situated  at  the 
foot  of  that  mountain. 

The  Lydians  were  people  of  culture  as  well  as  of 
wealth,  and  they  were  the  first  to  have  coined  money. 
At  a very  early  period  Lydia  was  organized  as  a mon- 
archy, and  until  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  was  govern- 
ed by  a dynasty  called  the  Heraclidae.  Herodotus  says 
that  the  Lydian  traditions  represent  Ninus  and  Belus, 
the  founders  of  Ninevah  and  Babylon,  as  being  natives 
of  Lydia.  It  was  the  Lydian  general,  Ascalus,  who, 
pushing  his  conquests  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Syria,  founded  the  famous  city  of  Ascalon  in  the  land 
of  the  Philistines. 

All  the  internal  difficulties  of  the  Lydians  appear  to 
have  risen  from  the  rivalry  of  the  two  royal  houses 
of  Heraclidae  and  Mermnadae.  The  Heraclidae  at 
first  victorious,  were  subsequently  overthrown  by  the 


80  Ancient  Empires. 

Mermnadse,  and  their  chief,  Gyges,  mounted  the 
Lydian  throne  B.  C.  700.  Under  him  the  Greeks  of 
the  Asiatic  coast  were  reduced  to  submission,  and  such 
immense  revenues  flowed  into  the  royal  treasury  that 
Lydia  became  proverbial  for  its  vast  riches.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  reign  of  Gyges,  about  B.  C.  662,  a 
Celtic  people  from  beyond  the  Caucasus,  named  Cim- 
merians, marched  over  the  moutains,  slew  King 
Gyges  in  battle,  and  sacked  Sardis,  the  capital  of 
Lydia.  About  B.  C.  617,  Alyattes,  a great  grandson  of 
Gyges,  came  to  the  throne  and  expelled  the  Cim- 
merians from  Asia  Minor.  It  was  through  this  event 
that  the  lesser  nations  of  Asia  Minor  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  Lydia  About  B.  C.  615  Lydia  be- 
came involved  in  war  with  Media  and  Babylonia  while 
attempting  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  Media  to- 
wards the  west.  Through  the  mediation  of  the 
Babylonian  king,  five  years  later,  Lydia  and  Media 
became  friends,  and  the  son  of  Cyaxeres  married  the 
Princess  of  Lydia.  Having  in  this  way  secured  strong 
allies  in  the  East,  Alyattes  pressed  forward  his  conquest 
over  the  Asiatic  Greeks.  Smyrna  was  soon  captured, 
and  his  complete  authority  established.  Alyattes  died 
B.  C.  568,  and  was  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  his  son, 
the  famous  Croesus. 

Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  Lydians  were  the  first 
to  engage  in  the  business  of  shop-keeping.  They  were 
skillful  musicians,  being  the  inventors  of  the  flute  and 
cithara,  and  they  were  a brave  and  manly  people. 
Most  of  their  fighting  was  done  on  horseback,  and 
Nicolas  of  Damascus  says  that  they  could  muster 


The  Lydians. 


81 


thirty  thousand  cavalry  even  in  the  time  of  the  Hera- 
clidae  dynasty.  In  their  six  years  war  with  Media,  the 
Lydians  successfully  defended  themselves  against  the 
Eastern  hordes  that  were  sent  against  them ; but,  as 
Herodotus  tells  us,  peace  was  brought  about  by  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun  in  the  midst  of  one  of  their  most 
desperate  battles.  The  obscuration  of  the  sun  excited 
such  superstitious  fears  on  both  sides  that  negotiations 
for  peace  were  at  once  begun,  which  ended  in  securing 
the  closest  friendship  between  the  two  nations.  Under 
Croesus,  Lydia  reached  the  highest  pinnacle  of  her 
glory  and  prosperity,  but  at  this  time  the  Persians  were 
rapidly  growing  into  that  power  which  made  them 
master  of  all  the  known  world  outside  of  Europe. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Alyattes,  Croesus 
was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  government  of 
Lydia.  Some  time  during  this  period  the  court  of 
Lydia  was  visited  by  Solon  of  Athens,'  one  of  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece.  The  distinguished  guest 
was  entertained  with  great  hospitality  in  the  palace, 
but  the  sage  paid  so  little  heed  to  the  magnificence  of 
the  court  that  the  Crown  Prince  was  greatly  annoyed. 
Solon  was  taken  to  the  royal  treasury,  that  he  might  be 
awed  by  the  incalculable  stores  therein,  but  he  looked 
with  less  interest  upon  the  great  heaps  of  gold  than 
upon  the  art  displayed  in  the  structure  of  the  building. 
Croesus  having  exhausted  his  resources  to  draw  a 
compliment  from  the  great  Grecian  lawgiver,  then 
asked  him  to  name  the  happiest  man  he  had  met  in 
all  his  travels.  Considering  the  almost  limitless  re- 
sources and  power  in  the  hands  of  Croesus,  that  prince 


82 


Ancient  Empires. 


expected  himself  to  be  named  by  Solon  as  the  happiest 
man.  However,  Solon  replied : “The  happiest  man  I 
have  ever  known  was  one  Tellus,  an  Athenian,  a very 
honest  and  good  man,  who  lived  all  his  days  without 
indigence,  saw  his  country  in  a flourishing  condition, 
had  children  that  were  universally  esteemed,  and  en- 
joyed the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  children’s  children 
likewise  brought  up  in  honorable  ways.  He  at  last 
died  gloriously  on  the  field  of  victory  fighting  for  his 
country,  and  was  rewarded  by  a public  funeral  by  the 
city.” 

Astonished  at  this  unexpected  reply,  Croesus  asked 
Solon  whom  he  regarded  as  the  next  happiest  man. 
The  philosopher  then  named  two  brothers  of  Argos, 
who  had  won  the  admiration  of  their  countrymen  by 
their  devotion  to  their  mother.  These  brothers  were 
rewarded  by  the  gods  with  a pleasant  and  painless 
death.  Then,  in  still  greater  astonishment,  Croesus 
said,  “Man  of  Athens,  think  you  so  meanly  of  my 
prosperity  as  to  rank  me  below  private  persons  of  low 
conditions?”  Solon  did  not  wish  either  to  flatter  or 
disappoint  the  famous  prince,  so  he  said,  “King  of 
Lydia,  the  Greeks  have  no  taste  for  the  splendors  of 
royalty;  moreover,  the  vicissitudes  of  life  suffer  us 
not  to  be  elated  by  any  present  good  fortune  or  to  ad- 
mire that  felicity  which  is  liable  to  change.  He,  there- 
fore, upon  whom  Heaven  smiles  to  the  last,  in  our 
estimation,  is  the  happy  man.”  The  Athenian  sage 
then  took  his  departure,  but  it  is  not  recorded  that  the 
rebuke  made  Croesus  a wiser  or  better  man. 

The  Court  of  Lydia  is  said  also  to  have  been  visited 


The  Lydians. 


by  Aesop,  the  celebrated  fabulist.  The  ancient  chon- 
icier  of  this  visit  says  that,  in  a conversation  between 
Aesop  and  Solon,  referring  to  the  incident  just  re- 
lated, Aesop  said  to  Solon:  “You  see  that  we  must 
either  not  come  near  kings,  or  say  whatever  is  agree- 
able to  them.”  To  which  the  philosopher  replied : 
“We  should  either  say  what  is  useful  or  say  nothing  at 
all.”  Croesus  soon  came  to  understand,  through  the 
vicissitudes  of  fortune,  the  wise  words  of  Solon. 

The  Lydian  monarch  had  two  sons.  One  of  them 
was  dumb,  but  the  other,  named  Atys,  was  endowed 
with  superior  accomplishments.  Both  of  them  came  to 
unhappy  ends,  Atys,  heir  to  the  throne,  being  acci- 
dently killed  in  a boar  hunt  near  Olympus,  in  Mysia. 
Croesus  mourned  two  years  for  the  death  of  his  son, 
when  the  encroachments  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  brought 
forth  all  his  energies  to  preserve  his  throne.  He  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Egypt,  Babylon  and  Sparta,  but  it 
only  stayed  for  a time  his  inevitable  fall.  The  Persians 
soon  appeared  at  the  borders  of  his  kingdom  and  a bat- 
tle was  fought  at  Cappadocia,  after  which  Croesus  re- 
treated toward  Sardis.  Cyrus  pursued  him,  and  a great 
battle,  disastrous  to  Lydia,  was  fought  at  Thymbra, 
in  which  Cyrus  had  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  thou- 
sand men  against  a Lydian  army  of  four  hundred 
thousand.  After  this  defeat,  the  mercenaries  em- 
ployed by  Croesus  deserted  him  and  returned  to  their 
homes.  Croesus  now  withdrew  to  Sardis,  where  the 
Persians  destroyed  the  Lydian  army  and  captured  the 
king.  According  to  the  barbarous  customs  of  those 
times,  Cyrus  condemned  the  unhappy  king  to  be 


84  Ancient  Empires. 

burned  alive.  As  fire  was  about  to  be  applied  to  the 
funeral  pile,  Croesus  exclaimed  bitterly,  “O  Solon ! 
Solon !”  Cyrus  being  present  asked  what  deity  it  was 
upon  whom  the  Lydian  king  was  calling.  The  cere- 
mony of  burning  the  conquered  king  was  stopped  in 
order  that  Croesus  might  explain  to  Cyrus.  The 
Persian  king  was  so  greatly  affected  by  the  wisdom 
contained  in  the  story  that  he  ordered  the  miserable 
captive  to  be  set  at  liberty. 

Xenophon  relates  that  Cyrus  ever  after  treated 
Croesus  as  a friend,  taking  him  as  a companion  through 
many  of  his  most  important  campaigns.  Lydia  be- 
came a province  of  the  great  Medo-Persian  Empire, 
and  never  reappeared  in  history  as  an  independent 
nation. 


THE  ASSYRIANS. 


The  upper  portion  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley  was 
the  home  of  the  Assyrians.  Mount  Masius  was  on 
the  northern  boundary  and  the  Zagros  mountains  upon 
the  east.  The  Euphrates  marked  its  western  boundary 
and  Chaldsea  was  on  the  South.  The  Tigris  flowed 
through  the  center,  dividing  it  into  what  may  be 
termed  Eastern  and  Western  Assyria.  Its  area  was 
about  seventy-five  thousand  miles.  Eastern  Assyria 
was  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  the  kingdom. 
Three  of  the  four  great  cities  were  located  there,  and 
Nineveh  lay  opposite  the  modern  Mosul.  Directly 
south  of  Nineveh,  twenty  miles,  was  Calah.  Forty 
miles  below  this  was  Asshur,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tigris.  The  whole  region  was  one  of  great  fertility, 
although  it  did  not  possess  such  advantages  as  Chal- 
dsea,  its  southern  neighbor.  Edible  vegetables  were 
largely  cultivated  in  Assyria,  and  many  of  them,  so 
largely  used  in  modern  times,  were  indigenous  to  that 
country.  Iron,  copper  and  lead  existed  in  great  abun- 
dance in  the  Tiyari  mountains,  not  far  from  Nineveh, 
while  other  important  metals  were  to  be  found  in  the 
Khurdish  mountains. 

Like  most  of  the  ancient  nations,  the  Assyrians  were 
a deeply  religious  people.  They  were  likewise  fierce 
and  treacherous,  delighting  in  the  dangers  of  the  chase 
and  in  war.  The  Assyrian  soldiers  were  greatly  feared 
in  ancient  times,  but  that  they  were  less  cruel  than 


(85) 


Ancient  Empires. 


other  nations  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  they 
took  so  many  male  prisoners  as  captives  in  war. 

In  their  achievements  they  deserve  to  be  ranked 
among  the  foremost  in  Asia. 

Some  time  after  the  conquests  of  Nimrod  there  was 
an  emigration  of  the  Semitic  people  from  the  lower 
country  to  the  north.  Whether  this  was  a voluntary 
act  or  an  enforced  colonization  cannot  be  determined. 
The  Assyrian  sprang  from  the  tribe  of  Asshur,  and 
it  is  certain  that  these  people  were,  for  a long  period 
of  time,  governed  by  rulers  sent  from  the  Chaldsean 
kings,  but  at  last  we  find  them  with  an  independent 
government  of  their  own,  having  the  seat  of  empire 
at  the  city  of  Asshur.  The  date  of  this  independence 
from  Chaldsea  is  uncertain,  but  there  is  evidence  that 
the  early  Assyrian  kings  were  related  to  the  Chaldsean 
sovereigns  by  marriage.  For  an  indefinite  period  the 
two  nations  existed  together  as  close  friends. 

Assyria,  during  this  period,  was  always  involved 
in  the  domestic  troubles  of  the  Chaldsean  crown,  and 
one  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  Asshur-up-allit,  caused  the 
crown  of  Chaldsea  to  be  placed  upon  the  head  of  the 
rightful  heir,  who  was  his  relative. 

One  of  the  kings  of  this  period,  about  B.  C.  1320, 
named  Shalmaneser  I,  conducted  successfully  wars  in 
the  Niphates  mountains,  and  he  founded  Calah,  now 
known  as  Nimrud,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris. 
From  this  it  is  clear  that  Assyria  had  widened  its 
borders  to  the  far  north,  and  was  entering  upon  its 
great  career  of  conquest  and  prosperity.  However, 
its  arts  were  exceedingly  rude  and  its  civilization  just 


The  Assyrians. 


87 


begun.  The  cities  were  all  built  in  the  quadrangular 
form,  the  temples  were  made  in  pyramidal  towers,  and 
the  royal  palaces  were  set  upon  lofty  artificial  mounds. 

The  original  of  the  Greek  Ninus  was  probably  Tig- 
lathi-Nin  I,  the  son  of  Shalmaneser.  This  monarch 
overthrew  Babylon  about  B.  C.  1300,  and  Chaldsea 
was  subject  to  the  Assyrian  kingdom  for  at  least  a 
century. 

About  B.  C.  1150  Asshur-Ris-ilum  came  upon  the 
historical  stage  and  engaged  extensively  in  foreign 
wars,  which  prepared  the  way  for  the  conquests  of  his 
son,  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  Babylonia  was  invaded  by  him, 
and  he  concluded  a successful  war  against  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Some  writers  believe  that  he  is  the  monarch 
mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Judges  as  Chushanris-Ath- 
aim,  king  of  Mesopotamia.  Tiglath-Pileser  I suc- 
ceeded his  father  to  the  throne  about  B.  C.  1130.  He 
subdued  the  hostile  tribes  on  the  e3st  and  conquered 
Northern  Syria.  Babylon  came  under  his  control,  and 
he  caused  great  internal  improvements  to  be  made, 
among  which  was  a wise  system  of  irrigation  that 
greatly  increased  the  productiveness  of  the  soil.  He 
introduced  the  use  of  many  foreign  vegetables  and 
brought  many  varieties  of  cattle  into  Assyria.  He 
made  his  kingdom  powerful  and  compact,  centralized 
the  resources  of  natural  power,  and  caused  his  country 
to  stand  forth  as  the  most  prominent  in  Asia. 

At  a very  early  period  the  Assyrians  made  use  of 
letters,  and  carefully  kept  a record  of  their  history. 
These  records  were  engraved  on  stone  or  stamped  in 
bricks.  If  papyrus  was  used  by  them  at  that  time,  as 


88 


Ancient  Empires. 


it  was  in  Egypt,  no  effort  was  made  to  preserve  the 
manuscript,  since  none  has  ever  been  found  in  the 
mounds  opened  by  modern  explorers.  They  were 
skillful  glass-blowers  and  designers,  far  surpassing 
in  this  and  kindred  industries  all  the  nations  of  the 
East.  They  were  less  religious  than  the  Egyptians 
and  Greeks,  bestowing  most  of  their  attention  upon 
their  kings  rather  than  upon  their  gods.  In  proof  of 
this,  it  may  be  noted  that  their  religious  structures 
were  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  royal  resi- 
dences. 

The  Assyrians  delighted  in  the  ornaments  of  dress. 
Men  of  rank  wore  long  fringed  robes,  reaching  to  their 
feet  and  confined  at  the  waist  by  a closely  fitting  belt 
or  girdle.  The  sleeves  were  short  and  barely  covered 
their  shoulder.  The  women  of  the  better  class  dressed 
in  long  fringed  gowns,  more  sweeping  than  those  of 
the  men.  The  sleeves  were  long,  and  they  usually  wore 
a short  cloak  over  their  shoulders.  Their  hair  was 
arranged  in  short,  crisp  curls,  while  the  head  was  en- 
circled with  a fillet. 

The  religion  of  the  Assyrians  resembled  that  of  the 
early  Chaldseans,  their  principal  divinity  being  the 
great  god,  Asshur.  Sacrifices  of  animals  and  birds 
were  made  to  idols  of  stone  and  clay.  There  religion 
was  of  a sensuous  nature,  but  their  ceremonies  were 
imposing. 

After  the  reign  of  Asshur-Bil-Kala  until  the  middle 
of  the  ioth  century  B.  C.,  there  is  little  in  Assyrian 
history  of  any  interest.  The  uncertain  period  closed 
about  the  year  B.  C.  889,  when  Tiglathi-Nin  II  ascend- 


The  Assyrians. 


89 


ed  the  throne.  In  B.  C.  883,  his  son,  the  great  and 
powerful  Asshur-Lzir-Pal,  came  to  the  throne.  The 
career  of  Assyrian  conquest  then  began.  His  tri- 
umphant armies  ranged  from  the  Zagros  region  into 
Armenia,  Western  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia.  In 
the  short  period  of  six  years  the  country  sprang  from 
obscurity  into  greatness.  During  that  time  the  king 
had  conducted  ten  successful  campaigns.  The  ninth 
of  these  campaigns  is  most  interesting  to  the  student 
of  history.  It  was  then  that  the  Assyrian  army 
marched  directly  across  the  Euphrates  to  Patena,  the 
region  about  Antioch,  and  passed  north  of  Lebanon  to 
the  Mediterranean.  Laden  with  spoils  he  returned  to 
his  own  country,  and  the  rapid  advance  of  Assyria  in 
wealth  and  art  was  now  in  progress.  Magnificent 
buildings  were  erected  and  every  evidence  of  luxury 
displayed,  literature  was  cultivated,  and  the  records  of 
each  reign  carefully  cut  in  stone  or  impressed  on 
cylinders  of  baked  clay.  Bactrian  camels  and  elephants 
were  imported,  and  the  seat  of  government  transferred 
to  Calah. 

Shalmaneser  II.  succeeded  his  father  to  the  throne 
B.  C.  858,  and  reigned  thirty-five  years.  He  con- 
ducted twenty-three  campaigns  during  the  first  twenty- 
seven  years  of  his  reign,  overrunning  nearly  the  whole 
of  Asia  from  the  borders  of  Persia  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  This  powerful  king  died  B.  C 823,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shamas-Vul  II.,  who  reigned 
thirteen  years.  During  this  time  Assyria  was  the 
greatest  power  in  Asia.  The  dominion  of  Assyria 
extended  west  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  north  to 
Armenia. 


90 


Ancient  Empires. 


His  son,  Vul-Lush  III.  succeeded  him  B.  C.  810. 
This  king  in  twenty-six  campaigns  established  his 
supremacy  over  Babylonia,  and  the  boundaries  of  the 
empire  now  included  the  whole  territory  between  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Mediterranean.  His  wife  was 
heiress  of  Babylonia. 

At  this  time  the  Greeks  and  Romans  came  in  contact 
with  the  Assyrians,  and  in  their  writings  preserve  a 
legendary  story  of  the  Queen  of  the  Assyrians,  which 
made  her  known  as  one  of  the  greatest,  as  well  as  the 
most  infamous  personages  in  history.  Her  name  was 
Sammuramit,  but  through  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
she  was  made  famous  as  Semiramis.  She  was  believed 
to  be  the  wife  of  Ninus,  the  mythical  founder  of 
Nineveh,  but  it  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the  acts 
attributed  to  her  were  fabulous  and  that  she  was  at 
most  simply  joint  ruler  with  Val-Lush  III.,  her  hus- 
band, and  that  she  assisted,  through  her  wit  and 
beauty,  to  make  his  reign  illustrious.  However,  ac- 
cording to  the  story  of  the  early  historians,  Ninus  and 
Semiramis  were  the  hero  and  heroine  of  old  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  chronicles.  So  great  was  the  uncer- 
tainty of  facts  recorded  of  them  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  that  the  different  historians  and  chronologists 
were  no  less  than  a thousand  years  apart  with  regard 
to  the  time  when  they  flourished.  Ninus  was  repre- 
sented as  a great  and  powerful  sovereign,  and  is  said 
to  have  made  Nineveh  the  greatest  and  most  powerful 
city  in  Asia.  After  having  made  extensive  conquests 
he  espoused  Semiramis,  who  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne  as  Queen  of  the  Assyrians.  She  is  described 


The  Assyrians. 


91 


by  her  historians  as  not  only  surpassing  all  her  sex  in 
wit  and  beauty,  but  also  in  possessing  the  most  extra- 
ordinary talents  for  government  and  war.  On  coming 
to  the  throne,  she  sought  to  enlarge  and  make  more 
powerful  the  city  of  Babylon.  Other  parts  of  her 
empire,  however,  received  a proportionate  share  of  her 
attention  and  she  left  many  magnificent  monuments 
and  noble  structures  reared  for  the  convenience  and 
ornament  of  her  cities.  She  improved  the  roads 
through  her  empire  by  cutting  through  mountains  and 
filling  up  valleys,  and  she  brought  water  through 
acqueducts  to  such  places  as  needed  it.  Diodorus 
states  that  in  his  time,  just  before  the  coming  of  Christ, 
there  were  many  monuments  still  to  be  seen  with  her 
name  and  deeds  inscribed  upon  them. 

Her  armies  made  vast  conquests,  and  she  often  ac- 
companied the  expeditions.  In  one  of  these  she  in- 
vaded India  with  a vast  army  collected  from  all  parts 
of  her  empire.  When  the  Indian  king  heard  of  her 
invasion,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  ask  her  by  what  right 
she  had  come  into  his  territory,  adding  that  her  bold- 
ness would  soon  meet  with  deserved  punishment. 
“Tell  your  master,  answered  the  Queen,  that  in  a short 
time  I,  myself,  will  come  to  let  him  know  who  I am." 
At  the  river  Indus  she  was  met  by  the  Indian  army, 
and  although  her  army  was  victorious,  she  lost  about 
one  thousand  boats  and  more  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand of  her  troops  were  taken  prisoners.  Semiramis 
left  a body  of  sixty  thousand  men  to  protect  a bridge 
of  boats,  which  she  had  built  over  the  river,  and  pre- 
pared to  advance.  The  Indian  monarch  feigned  great 


92 


Ancient  Empires. 


fear,  and  his  army  fled  at  her  approach,  but  when  the 
Assyrians  were  far  enough  advanced  into  his  domin- 
ions he  attacked  her  on  all  sides  with  a great  multitude 
of  men  and  elephants.  The  engagement  was  disastrous 
to  Semiramis,  and  her  troops  were  thrown  into  dis- 
order. In  attempting  to  recross  the  river  a panic  pre- 
vailed among  her  troops  and  nearly  half  of  them 
perished.  When  the  survivors  were  safely  across  the 
Queen  ordered  the  bridge  destroyed,  and  the  army  pro- 
ceded  to  the  city  of  Bactra,  where  prisoners  were  ex- 
changed, and  the  unhappy  expedition  abandoned.  This 
queen,  so  celebrated  in  song  and  story,  is  said  to  have 
reigned  forty-two  years,  and  died  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
two. 

Vul-Lush  III.  died  in  the  year  B.  C.  781,  and  for  the 
half  century  following  his  reign  little  is  known  of  the 
history  of  Assyria.  It  was  unquestionably  a period  of 
weakness  and  decay. 

About  this  time  there  appeared  at  Nineveh  a 
stranger,  who  walked  through  the  streets  uttering  in 
a strange  tongue  the  startling  words,  “Yet  forty  days 
and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown.”  This  cry,  coming 
from  the  Prophet  Jonah,  at  a time  when  Assyria  was 
enervated  by  luxury,  and  was  threatened  by  foreign 
and  domestic  foes,  caused  the  people  to  be  seized  with 
great  consternation  and  alarm.  The  frightened  serv- 
ants of  the  king  ran  to  him  with  the  story  of  the 
strange  man  and  his  prophecy.  The  monarch,  over-  • 
whelmed  with  fear,  left  his  throne,  threw  aside  his 
robe,  and  covered  himself  with  sackcloth  and  ashes. 
He  framed  an  edict  for  a great  fast,  in  the  hope  of 


The  Assyrians. 


93 


turning  aside  the  calamity.  According  to  Scripture, 
he  “caused  it  to  be  proclaimed  and  published  through 
Nineveh,  by  the  decree  of  the  king  and  his  nobles, 
saying  let  neither  man  nor  beast,  herd  nor  flock,  taste 
anything;  let  them  not  feed  nor  drink  water;  but  let 
man  and  beast  be  covered  with  sackcloth  and  cry 
mightily  unto  God ; yea,  let  them  turn  every  one  from 
his  evil  way,  and  from  the  violence  that  is  in  their 
hands.”  The  great  city  turned  from  the  revelry  and 
feasting  to  lamentation  and  mourning;  vices  were 
abandoned,  and  the  people  humbled  themselves  into 
the  dust.  The  inhabitants  believed  that  a great  calamity 
was  thus  averted,  as  the  city  was  not  overthrown  until 
more  than  a century  later. 

With  the  accession  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II,  B.  C. 
745,  began  the  supremacy  of  the  Lower  Assyrian  Em- 
pire. It  appears  that  he  was  a usurper,  and  of  humble 
origin,  but  through  his  vigor  and  power,  he  regained 
all  that  his  predecessors  had  lost,  once  more  making 
Assyria  the  master  of  Asia  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
the  Mediterranean.  He  overran  the  northern  terri- 
tory of  Israel,  and  carried  the  inhabitants  of  the  terri- 
tory west  of  Jordan  into  captivity.  Soon  after  Judah 
was  made  tributary  to  him.  He  was  succeeded  B.  C. 
727  by  Shalmaneser  IV.  At  this  time  Hoshea,  King 
of  Israel,  revolted,  but  was  soon  subjugated.  A few 
years  later  Hoshea  again  revolted  and  allied  himself 
with  Egypt,  which  was  then  under  the  rule  of  the 
Ethiopian  king,  Sabaco. 

Shalmaneser  invaded  Palestine  and  divided  his 
forces  so  that  he  could  attack  at  the  same  time  Phoen- 


94 


Ancient  Empires. 


icia  and  Israel.  He  laid  siege  to  both  Tyre  and 
Samaria.  At  the  end  of  two  years  he  took  Samaria, 
but  his  attack  upon  Tyre  was  unsuccessful,  his  fleet 
being  destroyed  by  the  Tyrians.  During  his  absence 
on  this  expedition  Sargon  raised  a rebellion  in  Assyria 
and  seized  the  throne,  thus  bringing  Shalmaneser’s 
reign  to  an  end,  B.  C.  721.  Sargon  proved  himself  to 
be  one  of  the  greatest  of  Assyrian  monarchs.  He 
crushed  out  all  opposition  in  his  own  country  and  over- 
threw all  the  revolting  tribes  that  had  been  subject  to 
Assyrian  dominion.  He  destroyed  the  city  of  Samaria, 
depopulated  the  country,  and  transported  the  Israel- 
ites to  Media.  Egypt  was  then  the  only  great  power 
remaining  unsubdued  by  Assyria.  Sargon  at  once 
began  war,  and  the  two  armies  met  at  Raphia,  south 
of  Gaza.  Although  the  Egyptians  were  aided  by  the 
Philistians,  they  were  decisively  defeated,  and  Sargon 
thus  became  master  of  Philistia  and  the  Delta.  The 
Egyptian  king  was  confined  to  Upper  Egypt,  and  not 
long  afterward  became  tributary  to  Sargon.  Even 
the  Ethiopian  king  of  Meroe  sent  in  his  submission 
to  the  conqueror. 

Sargon  then  made  himself  master  of  Babylonia  and 
Chaldaea.  He  then  subjugated  the  Northern  tribes 
and  overran  a part  of  Susiania. 

With  the  submission  of  Cypress,  B.  C.  709,  Sargon 
became  master  of  the  ancient  world. 

Four  years  later  Sargon  died,  and  Sennacherib,  his 
son,  the  most  famous  of  all  the  Assyrian  monarchs, 
came  to  the  throne.  At  his  accession  Babylon  and 
several  other  of  the  tributary  provinces  revolted,  but 


The  Assyrians.  95 

the  army  of  Sennacherib  soon  compelled  complete  sub- 
mission. 

At  the  opening  of  the  seventh  century,  B.  C.,  there 
occurred  to  the  army  of  Sennacherib  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  disasters  .recorded  in  the  chronicles  of 
ancient  times.  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  undaunted 
by  the  severe  defeat  inflicted  upon  him  because  of  the 
revolt  at  the  beginning  of  Sennecherib’s  reign,  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Egypt,  and  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
Assyria.  Sennacherib  at  once  marched  from  Nineveh 
into  Palestine  with  a powerful  army,  resolved  to  stamp 
out  the  recurring  influences  of  rebellion.  Knowing 
that  Judah  was  the  principal  foe,  he  marched  to  the 
frontier,  intending  to  punish  the  Egyptians  before 
passing  on  to  Judah.  The  principal  fortresses  at  the 
extreme  edge  of  Palestine  were  taken  and  demolished. 
Finding  that  Hezekiah  was  still  defiant,  he  sent  a de- 
tachment under  Rabshakeh  to  demand  the  surrender  of 
Jerusalem.  He  accompanied  his  demand  with  a mes- 
sage grossly  insulting  the  God  of  Israel.  Hezekiah 
refused  the  demand  of  the  Assyrians,  and  they 
returned  to  Sennacherib.  The  Assyrian  king  then 
sent  another  demand  to  Hezekiah,  accompanying  it 
with  a letter  in  which  he  said  that  the  God  in  whom 
the  King  of  Judah  trusted  was  not  able  to  deliver  him 
from  the  wrath  of  the  Assyrians.  According  to  the 
Scripture  story,  Hezekiah  took  the  letter  into  the 
temple,  spread  it  out  before  the  Lord,  and  implored 
Divine  help  against  Sennacherib.  At  this  the  prophet 
Isaiah  was  commanded  to  declare  to  Hezekiah  that 
Jerusalem  should  not  be  molested,  and  that  the  Assyr- 


Ancient  Empires. 


96 

ians  would  at  once  return  to  their  own  country.  On 
receiving  the  defiant  answer  to  his  second  letter  Sen- 
nacherib marched  toward  Pelusium,  on  the  Egyptian 
frontier,  to  meet  the  Egyptian  army  under  Sethos.  On 
the  night  following  the  prayer  of  Hezekiah  the  Angel 
of  Death  is  said  to  have  passed  over  the  camp  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  that  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thou- 
sand men  died  in  their  sleep.  Horrified  at  this  dread- 
ful calamity,  Sennacherib  abandoned  his  camp  and 
began  a hurried  retreat  to  Nineveh.  The  triumphant 
campaign  in  the  East  was  abandoned,  and  during  the 
rest  of  this  reign  the  Assyrians  did  not  again  molest 
Palestine. 

Numerous  campaigns  were  conducted  by  Senna- 
cherib into  other  rebellious  provinces,  the  greatest  of 
which  was  against  Susiania.  Sennacherib  invaded 
that  country,  destroyed  thirty-four  large  cities,  and 
captured  Vadaca,  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom.  He 
returned  to  Nineveh  loaded  with  spoils  and  spent  most 
of  the  rest  of  his  reign  in  subduing  insurrections  nearer 
at  home. 

About  B.  C.  683,  he  conducted  an  expedition  against 
Cilicia,  in  which  the  Assyrians  encountered  the  Greeks 
for  the  first  time,  and  defeated  them.  This  victory  was 
signalized  by  the  erection  of  a new  city,  modeled  after 
Babylon,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  Tarsus.  Subse- 
quently it  became  noted  as  the  birthplace  of  the  apostle 
Paul. 

Sennacherib  was  a great  builder  and  a patron  of  the 
useful  arts  and  industries.  His  reign  was  brought  to 
a close  B.  C.  681  by  his  death  at  the  hands  of  his  two 


The  Assyrians. 


97 


elder  sons,  who  were  in  turn  overthrown  by  Essar- 
liaddon,  his  youngest  son. 

This  king  was  as  warlike  as  his  predecessors,  but 
not  so  wise  and  successful.  However,  one  of  his 
campaigns  is  specially  noteworthy.  This  was  an  ex- 
pedition into  Arabia.  He  crossed  the  desert  with  a 
large  army,  plundered  many  towns  and  returned  with 
considerable  booty  safely  to  his  own  country.  Essar- 
haddon  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  only  monarch 
who  ever  ventured  to  conduct  in  person  an  expedition 
into  Arabia,  it  having  been  penetrated  by  a foreign 
force  only  three  times  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

The  most  important  event  of  his  reign  was  the  com- 
plete conquest  of  Egypt,  B.  C.  670.  He  captured 
Memphis,  and  proceeding  south  took  Thebes.  He 
divided  Egypt  into  twenty  petty  states,  over  each  of 
which  he  placed  a king,  but  they  were  made  subordin- 
ate, to  a certain  extent,  to  the  prince,  who  reigned  at 
Memphis.  This  prince  was  Nechoh,  father  of  Psam- 
metichus,  and  a native  Egyptian.  It  was  during  this 
reign  that  occurred  the  revolt  of  Manasseh,  King  of 
Judah.  The  Jewish  king  was  captured  and  taken  in 
chains  to  Babylon,  but  was  afterwards  released  and 
restored  to  his  throne  as  a vassal. 

About  B.  C.  667  Essar-haddon  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Asshur-Bani-Pal.  This  king  was 
devoted  to  the  arts  and  to  music.  He  established  a 
royal  library  at  Nineveh,  and  is  esteemed  as  one  of 
Assyria’s  greatest  kings.  During  his  reign  Assyrian 
supremacy  was  reasserted  over  the  territory  of  its 
former  conquests.  In  the  old  age  of  Asshur-Bani-Pal, 


98  Ancient  Empires. 

Cyaxares,  the  Median  king,  invaded  Assyria,  and 
closely  invested  Nineveh.  His  siege  would  doubtless 
have  been  successful,  but  he  was  compelled  to  return 
to  his  own  country  in  great  haste  because  of  an  in- 
vasion of  Media  by  the  Scythian  hordes  of  Northern 
Asia.  This  wild  and  barbarous  people  came  from  the 
Caucasus  and  overran  Media.  They  then  spread  west- 
ward over  Asia  toward  the  Mediterranean.  Assyria, 
weakened  by  the  revolt  of  Egypt,  under  Psammetichus, 
was  quickly  overrun  by  the  Scythians,  who  passed 
over  into  Syria,  where  they  were  checked  by  Psam- 
metichus, then  laying  siege  to  Ashdod  in  Palestine. 
He  bribed  this  wild  overflow  of  barbarians  to  turn 
aside  and  spare  Egypt.  They  disappeared  into  other 
countries,  in  which  they  are  supposed  to  have  been 
absorbed  by  taking  service  as  soldiers  in  the  armies 
of  the  kingdoms  which  they  entered.  It  is  supposed 
that  Asshur-Bani-Pal  died  during  this  invasion,  about 
B.  C.  626. 

The  vast  numbers  of  the  Scythians  made  resistance 
hopeless,  and  Assyria  fell  prostrate  under  their  rava- 
ges. Most  of  the  old  Assyrian  cities  were  taken,  the 
treasures  carried  away,  and  the  palaces  destroyed. 
The  barbarians  pursued  a policy  of  extermination ; 
and,  as  Rawlinson  says,  “Assyria,  when  the  Scythians 
quitted  her,  was  but  the  shadow  of  her  former  self ; 
weak  and  exhausted,  she  seemed  to  invite  a permanent 
conqueror.  If  her  limits  had  not  much  shrunk,  if  the 
provinces  still  acknowledged  her  authority,  it  was  from 
habit'  rather  than  from  fear,  or  because  they,  too,  had 
suffered  greatly  from  the  Northern  barbarians.” 


The  Assyrians. 


99 


To  complete  the  fall  of  Assyria,  the  Medes  and 
Susianians  formed  an  alliance  and  invaded  the  country 
from  the  east  and  south.  The  son  of  Asshur-Bani-Pal, 
known  to  the  Greeks  as  Saracus,  in  order  to  meet  this 
double  force,  divided  his  army  into  two  parts.  He  led 
in  person  the  division  that  was  to  attack  the  Medes, 
and  sent  Nabopolassar,  his  ablest  general,  with  the 
other  division,  to  drive  back  the  Susianians.  Seeing  his 
opportunity,  Nabopolassar  deserted  the  Assyrian  cause 
and  came  to  terms  with  his  enemy.  By  this  means  he 
secured  the  throne  of  Babylon  for  himself  and  received 
the  daughter  of  Cyaxares  as  a bride  for  his  oldest  son, 
Nebuchadnezzar.  He  then  united  his  forces  with 
Cyazares,  and  both  armies  marched  on  to  Nineveh. 
Saracus,  seeing  the  city  about  to  be  captured,  burned 
himself  in  his  palace,  and  Nineveh  was  taken.  The 
conquerors  divided  Assyria  between  them,  B.  C.  625. 

The  independent  kingdom  of  Assyria  had  lasted 
about  one  thousand  years,  and  then  fell,  not  from  in- 
herent weakness,  or  the  luxurious  decay  that  had  over- 
thrown other  countries,  but  through  the  invasion  of  a 
strong  nation  at  a time  when  the  country  had  been 
devastated  by  an  irresistible  horde  of  Northern  bar- 
barians. 


THE  BABYLONIANS. 


The  territorial  area  of  Babylonia  was  almost  identi- 
cal with  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Chaldsea,  and  it  con- 
tained about  27,000  square  miles.  East  of  the  Tigris 
lay  Cissia  or  Susiania,  known  to  the  Jews  as  Elam. 
Media  and  Assyria  were  north,  and  the  great  Arabian 
desert  south. 

After  the  absorption  of  Chaldaea  into  the  Assyrian 
monarchy  by  Tiglathi-Nin  I.,  B.  C.  1300,  many  at- 
tempts were  made  by  the  Chaldseans  to  restore  their 
monarch,  but  in  vain.  Nabonassar  made  the  first  suc- 
cessful revolt,  B.  C.  747,  and  established  the  inde- 
pendent monarchy  of  Babylonia.  In  order  to  blot  out 
the  record  of  his  country’s  slavery,  he  destroyed  all 
the  chronicles  of  the  Assyrian  viceroys.  One  of  his 
successors,  Merodach-Baladan,  B.  C.  713,  was  on  such 
terms  of  intimacy  with  the  Jews  that  he  sent  an  em- 
bassy to  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  congratulating  him 
on  recovering  from  a dangerous  illness. 

Babylon  was  conquered,  B.  C.  709,  by  Sargon,  who 
once  more  reduced  it  to  an  Assyrian  province.  The 
defeated  king  escaped  from  captivity  at  the  end  of  a 
year  and  regained  his  throne,  but  six  months  later  was 
overthrown  by  Sennacherib.  After  several  unsuccess- 
ful revolts  Essar-haddon  so  completely  subjugated  the 
Babylonians  that  he  made  himself  king  of  Babylon 
and  erected  there  a palace,  which  he  made  the  seat  of 
his  court  alternately  with  that  at  Nineveh. 


(1(X» 


The  Babylonians. 


101 


Saracus,  the  last  Assyrian  king,  in  the  year  B.  C. 
625,  placed  Nabopolassar  in  command  of  the  Babylon- 
ian province,  with  orders  to  turn  back  the  invading 
Susianians,  but  the  people  at  Babylon  were  already 
rising  in  rebellion  when  Nabopolassar  reached  the 
city,  and  he  took  advantage  of  the  popular  movement 
to  ruin  his  master  and  advance  his  own  interests. 
Accordingly,  he  made  an  alliance  with  Cyaxares,  who 
was  invading  Assyria  from  Media,  and  arranged  a 
marriage  between  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the 
daughter  of  Cyaxares,  which  secured  to  Nabopolassar 
the  crown  of  Babylonia.  With  the  kings  of  Baylon 
and  Media  thus  united  in  interest,  Babylon  became 
the  head  of  a powerful  empire. 

The  first  exertions  of  Nabopolassar  was  for  the  con- 
solidation of  his  government  and  the  prosperity  of  his 
people.  Between  the  years  B.  C.  615  and  B.  C.  610, 
Lydia  and  Media  were  at  war.  Most  of  this  time  the 
Assyrians  assisted  the  Medians.  It  was  at  a battle  in 
this  war  when  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  took  place  which 
so  frightened  the  Medians,  Babylonians  and  Lydians, 
that  a peace  was  brought  about  which  gave  an  unin- 
terrupted tranquillity  to  Western  Asia  for  half  a 
century. 

In  B.  C.  608,  the  dominions  of  Babylon  were  invaded 
by  the  Egyptians  under  Nechoh,  who  had  succeeded  to 
the  vigorous  policy  and  strong  resources  of  his  father, 
Psammetichus.  The  Egyptian  army  overran  all  the 
country  between  Egypt  and  the  Euphrates.  Josiah, 
King  of  Judah,  was  defeated  by  Megiddo — Jerusalem 
was  taken,  and  Jehoiakim  was  placed  upon  the  throne 


102 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  Judah.  For  three  years  Nechoh  was  left  to  enjoy 
his  conquest  in  peace.  However,  in  B.  C.  605,  Nabopo- 
lassar  assembled  a great  army  and  placed  it  under  the 
command  of  his  son,  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  Egyptian 
army  was  attacked  near  Carchemish,  and  defeated. 
Following  up  this  victory,  Nebuchadnezzar  pursued 
the  flying  Egyptians  to  the  border  of  Egypt  and  re- 
covered all  the  lost  territory.  Jehoiakim,  King  of 
Judah,  was  allowed  to  remain  on  his  throne  by  offering 
abject  submission. 

Nebuchadnezzar  intended  to  take  his  victorious 
army  on  to  Egypt,  but  upon  reaching  the  frontier  he 
received  news  of  the  death  of  his  father.  Making 
peace  with  Nechoh,  Nebuchadnezzar  returned  to 
Babylon  and  mounted  the  throne,  B.  C.  604.  The 
following  four  years  were  spent  in  improving  Baby- 
lon, pacifying  the  rebellious  provinces,  and  in  consoli- 
dating his  dominions.  Egypt,  anxious  to  injure  the 
power  of  the  Babylonian  king,  encouraged  revolts  in 
Phoenicia  and  Judah.  In  B.  C.  598  Nebuchadnezzar 
led  an  allied  Babylonian  and  Median  army  into 
Phoenicia  and  laid  siege  to  Tyre.  The  rebellious 
Jehoiakim,  King  of  Judah,  was  deposed,  and  put  to 
death.  Jehoiachim  was  then  made  King  of  Judah, 
but  was  soon  deposed  and  replaced  by  Zedekiah.  The 
Jews  struggled  heroically  against  their  enemy,  but 
were  finally  crushed  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  the 
destruction  of  their  temple  and  city,  and  the  transporta- 
tion of  their  entire  nation  into  Babylonia.  The 
Egyptian  king  had  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  Jews 
and  attempted  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  but 


The  Babylonians. 


108 


Nebuchadnezzar  was  not  able  to  turn  his  forces  in 
punishment  against  the  Egyptians  until  he  captured 
Tyre,  B.  C.  585,  after  a siege  of  13  years.  The  task 
of  punishing  the  Egyptians  for  their  assistance  to  the 
Jews  was  begun  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  B.  C.  581.  The 
war  seems  not  to  have  been  prosecuted  with  much 
vigor  in  this  campaign,  but  eleven  years  later  the 
Babylonians  invaded  Egypt,  conquered  it,  and  placed 
a new  king,  named  Amasis,  on  the  throne  as  a vassal. 

The  most  illustrious  period  of  Babylonian  history 
was  during  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  a 
man  of  great  political  wisdom  and  determination  of 
character.  His  country,  during  his  reign,  was  covered 
with  useful  works,  and  he  made  Babylon  the  most 
magnificent  city  in  Asia.  His  queen,  Amyitis,  was  a 
native  of  Media,  and  to  gratify  her  longing  for  the 
mountains  of  her  native  land,  the  celebrated  hanging 
gardens  of  Babylon  were  built.  These  hanging 
gardens  were  numbered  among  the  Seven  Wonders  of 
the  World.  A series  of  terraces  were  built  on  arches 
rising  above  the  walls  of  the  city.  Earth  was  laid  on 
this  structure,  in  which  were  planted  trees,  shrubbery 
and  flowering  plants.  Hydraulic  engines  were  con- 
structed to  raise  water  to  the  top  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  plants  and  to  make  fountains  and  cas- 
cades. A wall  of  baked  bricks  33  ft.  high  and  85  ft. 
thick  surrounded  this  city,  making  a circuit  of  forty- 
one  miles.  Owing  to  the  advantageous  position  of 
Babylon,  half  way  between  the  Indus  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, it  became  the  leading  commercial  city  of 
the  East.  Merchants  flocked  to  its  markets  from  all 


104 


Ancient  Empires. 


the  known  countries  of  the  world.  The  wealth  and 
prosperity  of  Babylon  spread  to  the  neighboring 
towns,  and  there  was  no  part  of  the  kingdom  to  which 
the  personal  influence  of  Nebuchadnezzar  did  not 
extend.  This  king  was  not  only  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  personages  of  ancient  history,  but  he  was 
also  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures,  in  which  is  to  be  seen  the  clearest 
view  of  his  character.  The  Book  of  Daniel  gives  an 
especially  strong  description  of  the  man  and  his  court. 
When  well  advanced  in  years  he  gave  up  most  of 
his  time  to  the  luxuries  of  his  magnificent  palaces 
and  allowed  the  corruption  that  pressages  the  inevit- 
able fall  of  a nation  to  creep  into  his  country.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  he  dreamed  a remarkable  dream 
which  greatly  disturbed  him. 

It  was  the  vision  of  a tree  that  reached  into  heaven, 
bearing  leaves  and  fruit  for  the  blessing  of  all  nations. 
Suddenly  a watcher  appeared  and  cried,  “Hew  it 
down  and  cut  off  its  branches ; nevertheless,  leave 
the  stump  of  its  roots  in  the  earth,  even  with  a band 
of  iron  and  brass  in  the  tender  grass  of  the  field,  and 
let  it  be  wet  with  the  dew  of  heaven,  but  let  his 
portion  be  with  the  beasts.”  All  the  soothsayers  and 
astrologers  within  his  dominions  were  called  to  the  king 
and  asked  for  an  interpretation  of  the  strange  vision, 
but  all  failed  to  satisfy  the  distressed  king,  until 
Daniel,  the  Hebrew,  came.  Daniel  declared  that  the 
monarch  was  himself  the  tree,  which  should  be  hewn 
down  and  his  branches  cut  away.  The  prophet  de- 
clared that  the  king  should  be  smitten  and  driven 


The  Babylonians. 


105 


forth  to  live  with  wild  beasts  until  his  pride  should 
be  humbled.  In  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar was  stricken  with  madness,  imagining 
himself  a beast,  and  went  forth  into  the  fields  on 
all-fours.  He  slept  in  the  open  fields  and  lived  on 
herbs  for  seven  years,  when  his  reason  suddenly  re- 
turned and  he  was  allowed  a brief  interval  of  peace 
before  his  death. 

The  afflictions  of  this  great  king  so  preyed  upon 
the  mind  of  his  son,  Evil-Merodach,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  B.  C.  55 7,  that  he  resolved  to  be  more 
lenient  to  the  Hebrews,  who  were  then  captives  in 
Babylon.  Jehoiachim  had  been  in  a Babylonian  pris- 
on for  thirty-five  years.  This  aged  Israelitish  king 
was  released  and  advanced  to  high  honor  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Babylonian  king.  The  conditions  of  other 
Jewish  captives  was  then  made  more  tolerable  than 
that  of  their  most  favored  fellow-exiles.  Important 
measures  were  being  taken  for  the  benefit  of  the  cap- 
tive Jews  when  an  insurrection  broke  out  and  Evil- 
Merodach  was  killed.  The  leader  of  the  revolt  was 
a son-in-law  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  was  not  only 
an  enemy  of  the  Jews,  but  despised  the  pacific  reign 
of  Evil-Merodach.  Intrigue,  conspiracy  and  treach- 
ery now  held  full  sway  in  Babylon,  and  great  events 
were  about  to  take  place.  A message  came  from 
Sargos,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  of  the  most  urgent 
importance.  That  country,  which  had  been  for  so 
long  a time  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  Babylon,  was 
now  threatened  by  a conqueror  from  Persia.  Nabo- 
nadius,  then  king  of  Babylon,  decided  that  for  the 


106 


Ancient  Empires. 


safety  of  his  own  kingdom  it  was  necessary  to  form 
an  alliance  with  Lydia  to  stop  the  advance  of  Cyrus. 
In  order  to  provide  against  an  invasion  of  the  Per- 
sians, which  Nabonadius  foresaw  to  be  inevitable, 
an  array  of  important  walls  and  barricades  were 
erected  about  Babylon,  indicating  that  the  king  did 
not  believe  his  army  able  to  meet  the  Persians  in  open 
battle.  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  was  overthrown,  and 
in  a few  years  Babylon  found  the  Persian  army  at 
its  walls. 

Fourteen  years  had  elapsed  since  the  alliance  with 
the  Lydians  had  been  made  as  the  actual  invasion 
of  Babylonia  did  not  begin  until  B.  C.  539.  Mid- 
way between  Ecbatana  and  Babylon  the  march  of 
the  Persian  army  was  interrupted  by  an  incident  char- 
acteristic of  that  age.  One  of  the  horses  which  drew 
the  Chariot  of  the  Sun  was  drowned  in  the  river, 
Gyndes.  This  insult  to  the  Persian  Deity  could  not 
be  passed  by  without  adequate  punishment.  There- 
fore the  Persian  king  ordered  a halt  and  set  his  army 
to  work  destroying  the  river.  Three  hundred  and 
sixty  channels  leading  into  the  desert  were  exca- 
vated and  the  whole  of  the  summer  was  employed 
in  breaking  up  the  course  of  the  river.  The  fol- 
lowing spring  the  army  moved  on  to  its  task  of  over- 
throwing the  Babylonian  empire.  No  opposition  was 
given  until  he  came  to  Babylon,  when  he  met  the 
army  of  Nabonadius  and  defeated  it.  Part  of  the 
Babylonian  army  shut  itself  up  within  the  city,  but 
the  king,  with  the  remainder,  withdrew  into  Bor- 
sippa,  hoping  to  lead  Cyrus  away  from  Babylon. 


The  Babylonians. 


107 


During  this  time  Belshazzar,  son  of  the  king,  was  in 
command  of  the  forces  within  the  city.  So  complete- 
ly were  the  people  given  up  to  their  luxuries  and 
pleasures  and  so  much  confidence  did  they  have  in 
their  protecting  walls,  that  they  gave  little  thought 
to  the  enemy  without.  Cyrus  saw  that  he  could  make 
no  breach  in  the  walls,  and  he  accomplished  the  over- 
throw of  the  city  by  strategy.  Having  been  so  suc- 
cessful in  destroying  the  river  Gyndes,  he  formed 
the  purpose  of  diverting  the  course  of  the  Euphrates. 
Immense  canals  were  cut  some  distance  from  the 
city,  and  everything  was  ready  for  turning  the  course 
of  the  water,  when  Cyrus  learned  that  a great  an- 
nual feast  was  to  be  celebrated  in  the  city.  When 
the  night  of  revelry,  wild  abandonment  and  licentious 
debauchery  came,  the  Persians  opened  the  sluices  into 
their  canals  above  the  city  and  the  water  under  the 
brazen  gates  of  Babylon  melted  away.  The  invaders 
were  ready,  and  when  the  water  disappeared  from 
the  bed  of  the  stream,  they  passed  silently  into  the 
city.  A monstrous  massacre  ensued.  The  drunken 
Babylonians  could  offer  no  resistance.  Belshazzar 
and  his  thousand  nobles  were  slain  at  their  banquet 
and  Babylon  was  fallen.  Seeing  that  further  resis- 
tance was  useless,  Nabonadius  came  from  Borsippa 
and  surrendered  on  honorable  terms  to  Cyrus,  who 
treated  him  and  his  army  with  great  consideration. 
The  Babylonian  had  now  become  part  of  the  greater 
empire  of  Persia. 


THE  MEDES. 


The  Medes  were  of  Aryan  descent,  differing  but 
little  in  race,  language  and  institutions  from  their 
Southern  neighbors,  the  Persians.  They  were  an  im- 
portant tribe  in  early  times,  as  appears  from  the  Book 
of  Genesis,  wherein  they  are  mentioned  under  the 
name  of  Madai.  Berosus  says  that  they  furnished 
a dynasty  to  Babylon  previous  to  B.  C.  2000.  Media 
and  Andromeda,  two  eponyms  for  the  Medes,  are 
mentioned  in  two  Greek  legends  referring  to  a period 
before  the  age  of  Homer,  at  least  B.  C.  1000.  The 
history  of  the  Medes  as  a nation  begins  about  B.  C. 
850  years.  There  is  an  authentic  record  that  Sargon, 
an  Assyrian,  invaded  Media,  B.  C.  710.  An  annual 
tribute  was  required  of  the  Medes,  consisting  of  a 
certain  number  of  horses  for  the  Assyrian  stables. 
Sennacherib  and  his  son,  Essar-haddon,  both  exacted 
tribute  from  the  Medians. 

Sargon,  of  Assyria,  established  fortified  posts  in 
Media  and  settled  many  of  his  Israelite  captives  in 
Median  cities.  It  was  not  until  B.  C.  632  that  the 
rising  power  of  the  Medes  exerted  special  influence 
in  the  history  of  nations.  At  that  time  Cyaxares 
conducted  an  expedition  against  Nineveh.  Cyaxares 
has  been  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
Median  empire.  When  Cyaxares  had  reigned  thirty- 
four  years,  the  Medes  came  suddenly  through  the 
passes  of  the  Zagros  mountains  and  overran  the  sur- 


(108) 


The  Medes. 


109 


rounding  plains  of  Assyria.  The  Assyrian  king  sent 
an  army  to  repel  the  invaders,  which  was  done  with 
great  slaughter,  B.  C.  634.  This  defeat  taught  the 
Median  king  a valuable  lesson  and  no  further  attempt 
was  made  to  invade  Assyria  until  the  Median  army 
was  adequately  prepared  and  disciplined  for  the  task. 
Cyaxares  then  renewed  the  war  and  defeated  the  As- 
syrian army  sent  against  him  by  Asshur-Bani-Pal.  He 
pursued  the  retreating  troops  to  the  walls  of  Nine- 
veh, and  the  city  was  about  to  surrender  to  him, 
when  he  was  recalled  to  his  own  country  by  the  Scy- 
thian inundation,  which  swept  over  both  Media  and 
Assyria  with  terrible  ruin  and  devastation.  The 
Scyths  attacked  the  army  of  Cyaxares  as  it  returned 
from  the  siege  of  Nineveh,  and  notwithstanding  the 
heroic  struggle  that  followed,  the  great  hosts  of  Scy- 
thians overwhelmed  them  and  turned  the  Median 
army  into  a mass  of  fugitives  flying  for  their  lives. 
As  the  inundation  of  Scythians  subsided,  by  the 
dispersion  of  large  numbers  over  the  Western  coun- 
try, the  Medes  invited  the  Scythian  chiefs  to  a grand 
banquet,  where  these  barbarians  were  made  helpless- 
ly intoxicated  and  were  then  remorselessly  massacred. 
The  Medes  flew  to^arms  and  attacked  their  Scythian 
oppressors  with  irresistible  fury.  It  is  not  believed 
that  the  struggle  that  followed  was  of  short  dura- 
tion, but  the  Scyths  were  finally  expelled  from  Media. 
Many  romantic  legends  are  extant  concerning  this 
period  and  most  of  the  history  concerning  it  is  known 
to  be  fabulous. 

Having  freed  his  country  from  its  barbarous  in- 


110 


Ancient  Empires. 


vaders,  Cyaxares  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  re- 
storing his  kingdom  to  prosperity  and  power.  In 
a few  years  he  found  himself  in  a position  to  renew 
his  designs  upon  Assyria,  that  country  having  been 
fatally  weakened  by  the  Scythian  overflow.  In  prep- 
aration for  a successful  invasion  of  Assyria,  he  in- 
cited the  Susianians  and  Chaldseans  to  throw  off  the 
Assyrian  yoke  and  enter  into  an  alliance  with  him. 
This  was  successful  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  Su- 
sianians should  invade  Assyria  from  the  South  while 
the  Median  army  entered  from  the  East.  Saracus, 
the  Assyrian  king,  formed  a plan  to  attack  the  Medes 
with  an  army  led  by  himself,  while  Nebopolassar, 
his  principal  general,  was  to  go  to  Babylon  and  drive 
back  the  Susianians.  Nebopolassar  betrayed  his  sov- 
ereign and  sent  an  embassy  to  Cyaxares  offering  to 
become  an  ally  of  the  Medes,  provided  he  was,  him- 
self, elevated  to  the  throne  of  Babylon  and  the  daugh- 
ter of  Cyaxares,  named  Amyitis,  was  made  the  wife 
of  his  son,  Nebuchadnezzar.  This  offer  was  accept- 
ed and  the  combined  armies  laid  siege  to  Nineveh, 
which  was  taken  and  destroyed.  Saracus  perished 
in  his  palace  on  a funeral  pile  which  he  lighted  with 
his  own  hand. 

The  conquerors  divided  the  conquered  territory  be- 
tween them,  and  out  of  the  ashes  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  raised  the  two  great  kingdoms  of  Babylon 
and  Media. 

Herodotus  states  that  Cyaxares  continued  his  con- 
quests until  he  had  subdued  to  himself  all  Asia  above 
the  Halys  river. 


The  Medes. 


m 


The  Median  empire  advanced  westward  until  Cap- 
,adocia  was  absorbed,  thus  bringing  the  Medes  into 
collision  with  Lydia.  A confederacy  was  formed  by 
Lydia  to  stop  the  advance  of  the  Medes  westward. 
Cyaxares  secured  the  assistance  of  Nabopolassar  of 
Babylon  against  the  Lydians,  and  with  a large  allied 
army,  invaded  Asia  Minor.  The  war  that  followed 
for  six  years  was  brought  to  an  end  by  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun,  which  so  filled  the  contending  armies 
with  superstitious  fear  that  they  concluded  a peace 
which  bound  the  Lydians,  Medians  and  Babylonians 
to  a lasting  friendship. 

Cyaxares,  having  come  to  an  advanced  age,  died 
in  the  height  of  his  country’s  greatness.  By  his  con- 
quests and  abilities  he  furnished  his  people  the  ma- 
terials for  a powerful  empire,  but  his  nation  lacked 
the  element  of  stability. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Astyages,  who  was 
less  ambitious  and  able  than  his  father.  The  reign 
of  Astyages  was  long,  but  uneventful.  He  died 
childless  and  this  circumstance  probably  had  much  to 
do  with  the  final  overthrow  of  Media,  since  it  en- 
gendered petty  disputes,  which  led  to  such  animosity 
and  intrigue  that  the  national  power  was  dissipated. 

During  the  reign  of  Cyaxares,  Magism  became  the 
court  religion.  Astyages  encouraged  this  priestly 
caste,  which  in  time  became  a source  of  great  dis- 
turbance to  the  State.  From  the  conflict  of  oppos- 
ing religions,  little  is  to  be  recorded  of  Median  his- 
tory until  the  appearance  of  the  conquering  Cyrus. 
During  the  reign  of  Astyages,  this  Persian  prince 


112 


Ancient  Empires. 


had  been  a resident  at  the  Median  court.  He  was 
skilled  in  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster  and  so  despised 
the  hollow  mockeries  of  Magism.  Therefore,  in  the 
licentious  court  of  Astyages,  he  found  abundant  food 
for  rebellious  thoughts.  His  position  there  was  that 
of  a hostage  and  he  was  jealously  watched  and 
guarded.  At  last  he  applied  to  Astyages  for  leave 
to  return  to  Persia,  claiming  that  his  father,  the 
Persian  king,  being  old  and  feeble,  required  the  care 
of  his  son  and  heir.  Permission  was  at  first  given, 
but  while  Cyrus  was  on  the  way  home,  he  was  over- 
taken and  brought  back  by  order  of  the  king.  That 
night,  however,  he  made  his  captors  drunk,  and  while 
they  were  in  that  condition,  he  escaped.  A body  of 
soldiers  was  sent  to  recapture  him,  but  on  swift  horses, 
he  had  succeeded  in  reaching  the  borders  of  Persia, 
where  the  people  rallied  around  him,  and  when  the 
soldiers  of  Astyages  arrived,  they  found  themselves 
opposed  by  a force  equal  to  their  own.  A sharp 
conflict  ensued  but  Cyrus  defeated  his  pursuers  and 
escaped  to  his  father’s  court.  The  Median  king  at 
once  summoned  his  generals  and  ordered  an  invasion 
of  Persia.  Tradition  says  that  a Median  army  was 
mustered  numbering  three  thousand  war  chariots, 
two  hundred  thousand  horsemen,  and  a million  of 
infantry.  Astyages,  himself,  led  this  host  into  Persia. 
Cyrus  could  get  together,  by  the  utmost  exertions, 
only  one  hundred  chariots  of  war,  fifty  thousand 
horsemen,  and  two  hundred  thousand  infantry.  With 
this  comparatively  small  force  he  marched  to  the 
frontier  of  his  dominions  and  awaited  the  Assyrian 


The  Medes. 


113 


advance.  The  battle  that  followed  was  a desperate 
hand  to  hand  conflict  lasting  two  days.  The  bravery 
of  the  Persians  and  the  superior  generalship  of  their 
leader  were  over-matched  by  the  numbers  of  the  Me- 
dians and  the  forces  of  Cyrus  were  thrown  into  head- 
long flight.  During  this  battle  Cambyses,  father  of 
Cyrus,  was  slain,  and  the  young  prince  was  recognized 
as  king.  Astyages  marched  on  to  the  Persian  capi1 
tal.  Cyrus  rallied  his  forces  together  again  and  se- 
lected his  own  ground  for  battle.  A two  days’  con- 
flict followed,  more  terrific  than  the  first.  The  Medes, 
through  their  overwhelming  numbers,  were  able  to 
close  in  on  two  sides  of  the  Persian  army.  The  Per- 
sians were  thus  driven  to  the  summit  of  the  hills, 
where  their  wives  and  children  had  been  placed,  as 
being  more  secure  there  than  in  the  city.  When  the 
defeated  Persians  came  pouring  up  the  hillsides  the 
terrified  women  and  children  began  to  scream  and 
cry  with  such  reproaches  against  the  weakness  of  the 
soldiers  that  the  Persians  were  aroused  to  a desper- 
ation of  valor.  They  suddenly  rallied  and  flung  them- 
selves with  reckless  courage  upon  the  pursuing  Medes. 
Before  this  unexpected  onset  sixty  thousand  Medes 
were  killed.  The  Medes  ceased  their  attack  and  pre- 
pared more  carefully  for  a final  blow.  It  was  here 
that  the  martial  genius  of  Cyrus  shone  forth  in  its 
brightest  splendor.  He  quickly  reorganized  his  men 
and  fell  so  suddenly  upon  the  unsuspecting  Medes 
that  the  entire  army  was  thrown  into  a panic  and 
rout,  in  which  the  victorious  Persians  succeeded  in 
almost  destroying  the  entire  Median  army. 


114 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  Persian  chiefs  and  generals  gathered  around 
Cyrus  on  the  victorious  battlefield ; and,  with  warlike 
ardor  and  enthusiasm,  proclaimed  him  not  only  king 
of  Persia,  but  also  king  of  Media. 

Astyages  escaped  and  fled  to  his  capital,  Ecbatana. 
Just  before  reaching  the  city  he  was  captured  by 
some  pursuing  Persians  who  took  him  to  Cyrus. 
Astyages  being  childless  there  was  no  legitimate  heir 
to  the  throne  and  the  Medes  readily  accepted  Cyrus 
as  their  king.  Ecbatana  surrendered  in  the  year  B. 
C.  558.  Thus  the  Median  empire  came  to  an  end. 


THE  PERSIANS. 


When  Cambyses  came  to  the  throne  of  Persia  that 
nation  consisted  of  twelve  tribes  inhabiting  a single 
province.  Cambyses,  the  father  of  Cyrus,  belonged 
to  the  Pasargadae,  which  was  the  most  influential 
of  the  tribes.  Asia  at  that  time  contained  three 
great  ruling  powers : Babylon,  Media  and  Lydia. 

Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  held  dominion  over  all  Asia 
west  of  the  river  Halys,  now  known  as  Kizil  Irneak, 
excepting  Lycia  and  Cilicia.  Babylon  was  declining 
under  the  successors  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Lydia 
was  enervated  under  the  luxury  and  wealth  of  its 
court,  while  the  twelve  tribes  of  Persia  were  grow- 
ing rapidly  more  vigorous  and  strong. 

Cambyses  was  a Persian  noble  of  the  chief  tribe, 
when  he  married  Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyages, 
king  of  Media.  In  this  way  was  effected  a union  of 
the  Persian  and  Median  kingdoms,  with  himself  as 
chief  or  king.  Trouble  arising  with  the  powerful 
tribes  of  Armenia,  Cyrus,  son  -of  Cambyses  and  Man- 
dane, was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  for 
their  suppression.  His  immediate  and  brilliant  vic- 
tories aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  neighboring  sover- 
eigns. Fearing  the  great  power  which  Cambyses 
had  attained  by  the  union  of  Media  and  Persia,  a 
coalition  was  formed  by  the  kings  of  Babylon,  Egypt 
and  Lydia.  A fierce  battle  was  fought  between  the 
Persians  and  the  allied  armies  at  Thymbra,  a city 


116 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  Lydia,  in  which  Cyrus  at  the  head  of  the  army  com- 
pletely overthrew  his  opponents.  The  way  thus  be- 
ing opened  to  the  brilliant  young  warrior,  he  soon 
made  himself  master  of  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia, 
seizing  the  vast  riches  of  Croesus,  whom  he  took 
prisoner,  completely  subjugating  the  kingdom  and 
obliging  the  people  to  adopt  the  Persian  customs  and 
manners. 

The  warlike  Cyrus  continued  in  his  conquests  until 
he  had  reduced  all  Asia  Minor.  Then  he  carried 
the  war  into  the  Babylonian  Empire  and  defeated  the 
army  of  Belshazzar  so  completely  that  the  Babylon- 
ian king  shut  himself  up  in  his  capital.  The  young 
conqueror  then  planted  his  army  around  the  walls  of 
the  city.  Being  kept  well  informed  of  what  passed 
within,  he  ordered  his  men  on  a certain  night  when 
a great  feast  was  taking  place  within  the  doomed 
capital,  to  open  the  waterways  which  the  Babylon- 
ians used  to  draw  off  the  overflows  from  the  river. 
In  this  manner  the  channel  of  the  Euphrates  was 
drained  and  the  Persian  soldiers  were  enabled  to  walk 
under  the  great  brass  gates  which  hung  between  the 
walls  and  over  the  channel  of  the  river.  Under  cover 
of  the  confusion  and  disorder  occasioned  by  the  great 
feast  given  by  Belshazzar  to  his  nobles,  the  Persian 
troops  passed  along  the  bed  of  the  channel  and  were 
in  the  heart  of  the  city  before  they  were  discovered. 
The  effeminate  monarch  was  awakened  from  his  pleas- 
ing dream  of  security  in  the  midst  of  his  festivities, 
by  a mysterious  appearance  on  the  wall  near  his 
throne.  A hand  appeared  which  wrote  in  glowing 


The  Persians. 


117 


letters,  a prophecy  of  divine  vengeance:  “Mene, 

Mene,  Tekel,  Upharsin.”  The  frightened  king  called 
for  the  priests  of  Baal,  but  none  of  them  could  in- 
terpret the  mysterious  warning.  It  was  then  that 
Daniel,  fearless  in  his  youthful  sanctity,  came  for- 
ward and  read  the  prophecy  so  soon  to  be  fulfilled : 
“Thou  art  weighed  in  the  balance  and  found  wanting.” 
These  words  were  soon  verified,  for  at  that  moment 
the  dreaded  troops  of  Cyrus  were  marching  along  the 
bed  of  the  Euphrates.  Almost  without  resistance  the 
corrupt  city  was  taken,  and  the  unworthy  monarch 
slain. 

There  were  so  many  points  of  affinity  between  the 
Jews  and  the  Persians  at  that  time  that  Cyrus  was 
very  favorable  to  them.  He  permitted  them  to  re- 
turn from  their  captivity  in  Babylon  to  Jerusalem, 
and  not  only  assisted  them  in  rebuilding  their  temple, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  but 
restored  to  them  the  sacred  vessels  which  had  been 
carried  away  at  the  time  of  the  overthrow  of  the 
Jews. 

When  Cyrus  became  king  at  the  death  of  his  father, 
his  dominion  extended  from  the  river  Indus  to  the 
Aegean  Sea,  and  from  the  Caspian  and  Euxine  Seas 
to  Ethiopia  and  the  Sea  of  Arabia.  This  renowned 
monarch  was  one  of  the  most  virtuous,  wise  and  pow- 
erful kings  of  ancient  times.  For  many  centuries  his 
name  was  held  in  almost  deified  reverence  and  re- 
membrance among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The 
manner  of  his  death  is  not  known  with  any  degree 
of  certainty.  In  the  age  of  Strabo  his  tomb  bore 


118 


Ancient  Empires. 


this  inscription : “O  man,  I am  Cyrus,  who  founded 

the  Persian  Empire : envy  me  not  then  the  little  earth 
which  covers  my  remains.”  The  commonly  accepted 
tradition  is  that  he  was  killed  while  on  an  expedition 
against  the  Scythians. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses.  This  king 
was  as  cruel  as  his  father  had  been  wise  and  just. 
He  extended  his  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt, 
whose  king  he  put  to  death.  Becoming  jealous  of 
his  brother,  Smerdis,  Cambyses  ordered  his  assassina- 
tion, and  while  Cambyses  was  absent  on  an  expedi- 
tion against  his  enemies,  a magian,  who  called  him- 
self Smerdis,  pretending  to  have  escaped  the  intended 
assassination,  seized  the  throne,  but  the  imposition 
was  soon  discovered  and  the  imposter  killed. 

The  reigning  family  becoming  extinct  upon  the 
death  of  Cambyses,  a Persian  nobleman  named  Darius 
Hystaspes  was  raised  to  the  throne.  Babylon,  taking 
advantage  of  the  disordered  state  of  the  kingdom,  re- 
volted, but  Darius  Hystaspes  reconquered  the  city, 
and  then  collected  a formidable  army  for  the  invasion 
of  Scythia. 

The  Scythians  were  so  called  by  the  early  Greeks, 
and  the  name  Scythia  given  to  the  entire  territory 
north  and  west  of  Euxine.  However  as  early  as  the 
time  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  this  country  with  the  whole 
region  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  was  called 
Sarmatia;  while  the  name  Scythia  was  given  to  that 
part  of  Asia  beyond  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 

Darius,  with  the  ranks  of  his  Persian  troops  swelled 
by  Asiatic  Greeks,  passed  into  Europe  beyond  the 


The  Persians. 


119 


Danube.  On  the  banks  of  this  river  the  Greek  allies 
were  left  to  protect  the  bridge  of  boats  that  had 
been  made,  and  were  given  permission,  if  the  Per- 
sians did  not  return  within  three  months,  to  destroy 
the  bridge  and  return  to  their  own  country.  When 
the  Scythians  learned  that  Darius  had  crossed  the 
Danube,  they  sent  away  their  wives,  children  and 
flocks  into  the  northern  part  of  their  country.  Then 
with  a heroism  as  meritorious  as  any  known  in  his- 
tory, they  laid  waste  the  region  through  which  the 
Persians  must  pass.  They  consumed  the  food  and 
foliage,  and  destroyed  all  the  wells.  They  then 
marched  toward  their  enemy,  using  every  artifice  that 
might  draw  the  Persians  into  ambush.  At  last  a her- 
ald came  to  Darius  from  the  Scythian  prince.  He 
brought  with  him  a present,  consisting  of  a bird,  a 
mouse,  a frog  and  five  arrows.  Darius  supposed  that 
these  were  tokens  of  submission,  but  the  messenger 
steadily  refused  to  make  any  explanation  of  their 
import.  At  last  one  of  the  Persian  officers  was  en- 
abled to  unravel  the  enigma.  “Know  this,”  so  the 
import  of  the  message  ran,  “that  unless  you  can  fly 
in  the  air  like  birds,  or  hide  in  the  earth  like  mice, 
or  swim  through  the  water  like  frogs,  you  shall  in 
no  wise  be  able  to  escape  the  arrows  of  the  Scy- 
thians.” 

Thus  harrassed  amid  the  barren  steppes  of  the 
north  and  annoyed  by  the  devices  of  the  wily  enemy, 
the  Persian  army  became  disheartened  and  the  mon- 
arch was  compelled  to  relinquish  his  unprofitable  en- 
terprise and  return  to  the  Danube.  To  cover  their 


120 


Ancient  Empires. 


retreat  the  Persians  left  their  campfires  lighted  and 
the  Scythians  did  not  discover  the  absence  of  their 
enemy  until  morning.  They  then  dispatched  envoys 
- to  persuade  the  Greeks  to  destroy  the  bridge  over 
the  Danube.  As  the  Scythians  were  so  much  better 
acquainted  with  the  road  and  mountain  passes,  they 
arrived  at  the  river  before  Darius.  A momentous 
consultation  was  now  held  among  the  Grecian  chiefs, 
many  of  them  advising  an  alliance  with  the  Scythians, 
believing  that  the  destruction  of  Darius  would  secure 
their  own  independence.  Although  other  councils 
prevailed  the  meditated  treachery  was  made  known 
to  Darius  and  embittered  him  greatly  against  the 
Greeks.  After  recrossing  the  Danube,  he  left  Mega- 
bysus,  one  of  his  principal  generals,  with  a division 
of  his  army  to  hold  the  territory  and  returned  with 
the  rest  of  his  troops  to  Sardis.  Megabysus  em- 
ployed his  time  in  conquering  Macedonia  and  Thrace, 
which  he  added  to  the  Persian  dominions.  At  this 
time  Aristagoras,  tyrant  or  usurper  of  Miletus,  headed 
a revolt  of  the  Ionians  of  Asia.  They  dispatched 
embassadors  to  each  of  the  states  of  Greece,  implor- 
ing aid.  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  refused  any  as- 
sistance, but  the  Athenians,  who  were  incensed  at 
Darius  for  having  favorably  received  Hippias,  their 
banished  king,  willingly  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  Ionians.  In  order  to  arouse  enthusiasm  among 
the  people  against  Darius,  Aristagoras  traveling 
through  Ionia,  persuaded  the  tyrants  to  restore  free- 
dom to  the  cities.  He  set  the  example  himself  by 
liberating  Miletus.  The  Ionians  collected  a fleet  dur- 


The  Persians. 


121 


ing  the  first  three  years  of  the  war  and  sailed  for 
Ephesus.  Leaving  their  ships  at  this  place,  they 
marched  to  Sardis,  which  they  captured  and  burned. 
Artaphernes,  the  cruel  Persian  governor,  was  com- 
pelled to  take  refuge  in  the  citadel  from  which  he 
was  unable  to  escape.  The  Ionians  then  marched 
toward  Ephesus,  but  the  combined  Persian  and  Lydian 
armies  overtook  them  on  the  way  and  defeated  them 
with  great  slaughter.  At  this  misfortune  the  Athen- 
ians returned  to  their  ships  and  refused  to  assist  any 
further  in  the  war.  Artaphernes  now  being  able  safe- 
ly to  leave  the  citadel,  collected  a large  force  and 
concentrated  his  attack  upon  Miletus,  which  was  the 
most  important  city  of  the  Ionian  confederacy.  With 
a fleet  of  three  hundred  and  fifty-three  vessels  the 
Ionians  determined  to  attack  the  superior  Persian  fleet 
lying  near  the  besieged  city.  The  Greeks  were  known 
to  be  very  skillful  in  the  management  of  their  boats, 
and  the  Persian  commander  avoided  an  engagement 
until  he  was  able  to  corrupt  the  commanders  of  the 
different  squadrons  composing  the  Ionian  fleet.  He 
promised  a great  indemnity  to  those  countries  whose 
vessels  would  be  the  first  to  forsake  the  Ionian  cause. 
On  the  other  hand  he  threatened  utter  destruction 
to  all  those  whose  fleets  remained  true  to  the  Asiatic 
Greeks. 

The  sea  fight  began  with  all  the  allies  in  line,  but 
early  in  the  engagement  the  Samians  gave  the  signal 
for  flight,  and  forty-nine  ships  out  of  their  squad- 
ron of  sixty  fled  from  the  battle.  This  treachery  was 
heartily  disapproved  by  the  Samian  people  and  they 


122 


Ancient  Empires. 


ordered  the  names  of  the  eleven  captains  who  had 
disobeyed  the  treacherous  command  to  be  honorably 
recorded  on  a pillar  erected  in  their  capital.  The  Per- 
sians were  enabled  to  overwhelm  their  antagonists  by 
a force  of  numbers,  and  soon  after  Miletus  was  taken 
by  assault.  The  inhabitants  were  indiscriminately 
put  to  the  sword,  the  dwellings  and  temples  were 
burned  and  the  whole  country  was  devastated  to  the 
shores  of  the  Hellespont.  Artaphernes  was  then  re- 
called and  his  place  was  given  to  Mardonius,  a young 
nobleman  who  was  a son-in-law  of  Darius.  A large 
army  and  a powerful  fleet  was  given  to  him  and  he 
was  directed  to  carry  the  war  into  Greece.  His  army 
crossed  the  Hellespont  and  marched  into  Macedonia 
and  Thrace;  but  his  fleet  in  passing  Mt.  Athos  was 
struck  by  a storm  which  sunk  three  hundred  ships 
and  drowned  twenty  thousand  men.  At  this  disaster, 
the  season  being  far  advanced,  Mardonius  concluded 
to  abandon  the  enterprise  and  return  to  Asia.  Greece 
was  at  this  time  in  such  a weak  condition  as  to  be 
an  easy  prey  to  the  conquering  army.  It  consisted 
of  a number  of  small  independent  states,  without  mu- 
tual relations  or  obligations.  Petty  feuds  and  hos- 
tilities were  so  rife  that  the  people  hated  one  another 
more  than  they  did  their  foreign  enemies.  Sparta  and 
Athens  having  become  pre-eminent  over  the  other 
states,  were  bitterly  jealous  of  each  other;  but  a sense 
of  their  peril  on  the  approach  of  the  Persian  army 
allayed  their  animosity  to  such  an  extent  that  a na- 
tional spirit  was  brought  into  existence,  and  the  foun- 
dation was  laid  which  was  to  make  Greece  one  of 
the  conquerors  of  the  world. 


The  Persians. 


123 


A year  after  the  fruitless  invasion  by  Mardonius, 
Darius  sent  heralds  into  Greece  demanding  earth  and 
water  as  symbols  of  submission.  Some  of  the  weaker 
cities  and  islands  submitted. 

Eretria  was  destroyed  and  the  course  pursued  di- 
rectly to  Athens.  At  this  time  Miltiades,  tyrant  of 
the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  who  had  accompanied 
Darius  against  the  Scythians,  and  afterwards  took 
sides  with  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  was  chosen  with  nine 
others  to  take  charge  of  the  protection  of  Athens. 
A plan  of  battle  was  arranged  by  him  for  the  supreme 
struggle  to  take  place  on  the  plains  of  Marathon. 
Although  the  Persians  outnumbered  the  Greeks  ten 
to  one,  they  were  disasterously  defeated  and  thus 
driven  back  in  an  unbroken  rout  to  Asia.  The  ob- 
stinate Persian  king  was  still  determined  to  have  re- 
venge upon  the  Athenians,  and  he  therefore  at  once 
began  gigantic  preparations  for  the  subjugation  of 
the  Asiatic  Greeks.  The  whole  energies  of  his  em- 
pire were  devoted  for  three  years  to  the  organization 
and  equipment  of  an  overwhelming  force  with  which 
he  was  to  subdue  not  only  Greece  but  the  whole  of 
Europe.  Never  in  the  history  of  the  world  were 
such  stupendous  measures  taken  for  the  subjugation 
of  a distant  people.  However  a sudden  revolt  of 
the  Egyptians  distracted  the  attention  of  Darius  for 
a time,  but  his  energies  arose  to  the  emergency.  He 
led  in  person  an  army  into  Egypt,  but  in  the  midst 
of  his  victory  he  died,  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  hi's 
reign,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  His  unfinished  work 
was  taken  up  by  Xerxes,  his  son,  and  successor  to 


124 


Ancient  Empires. 


the  throne.  Darius  Hystaspes  through  his  achieve- 
ments, may  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  greatest  sov- 
ereigns of  the  ancient  world.  Artabazanes  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Darius,  but  he  did  not  succeed  to  the 
throne  because  he  was  not  born  in  the  purple;  that 
is  to  say,  he  was  not  the  first  son  to  be  born  after 
Darius  came  to  the  throne. 

The  first  care  of  Xerxes  was  to  conquer  the  Egyp- 
tians. There  was  reason  to  believe  that,  if  left  to 
himself,  he  would  have  abandoned  the  proposed  con- 
quest of  Europe,  but  his  ambitious  advisers  persuad- 
ed him  that  the  honor  of  his  country  required  him  to 
subjugate  the  impudent  states  of  Greece.  So  the  vast 
army  moved  forward  according  to  the  plans  of  Darius. 
So  great  were  the  Grecians  esteemed  in  arms  that 
Xerxes  spent  four  years  in  additional  preparation 
for  the  task  before  him. 

The  Persian  king  determined  to  profit  by  the  dis- 
asters of  preceding  expeditions.  He  knew  he  must 
rely  upon  his  army  rather  than  upon  his  navy,  al- 
though the  navy  was  close  in  general  importance  to 
the  army.  The  most  feasible  route  for  the  army  was 
around  the  long  coast  line  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia. 
Along  this  route  were  established  vast  storehouses, 
filled  with  provisions  for  the  subsistence  of  his  great 
army.  In  order  to  avoid  the  storms  that  had  been 
so  disastrous  in  the  past  expeditions,  he  caused  a ship 
canal  to  be  made  across  the  isthmus  which  connected 
Mt.  Athos  with  the  main  land.  The  Hellespont  was 
again  spanned  with  a bridge  of  boats.  But  a storm 
arose  and  the  great  bridge  built  with  such  cost  and 


The  Persians. 


125 


care  was  swept  away.  The  inefficiency  of  the  engi- 
neers was  punished  by  their  being  put  to  death  and 
the  sea  was  properly  scourged  with  a thousand  lashes. 
Another  bridge  was  built  more  than  double  the  strength 
and  width  of  the  one  just  swept  away  and  for  seven 
days  and  nights  a compact  column  of  soldiers  poured 
across  it.  It  was  now  the  spring  of  £.  C.  481,  and 
the  march  was  begun  with  forty-nine  nations  moving 
together  through  the  borders  of  Greece.  The  army 
numbered  one  million,  eight  hundred  thousand  men, 
each  contingent  of  this  motley  array  being  arranged 
and  equipped  after  the  fashion  of  its  native  country. 
In  three  great  divisions  the  army  moved  on  without 
molestation  until  they  reached  the  Pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae. Here  the  Greeks  had  collected  a small  de- 
tachment under  Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta.  The  pass 
was  held  until  a traitor  revealed  a mountain  pass  over 
which  the  Persians  succeeded  in  getting  into  the  rear 
of  the  Spartans.  Leonidas  finding  himself  thus  be- 
trayed, resolved  to  show  the  Persians  what  manner 
of  men  they  had  come  to  subjugate.  Sending  away 
all  but  three  hundred  of  his  most  devoted  followers, 
they  fell  upon  the  Persian  advance  and  fought  until 
the  last  man  was  killed.  Twenty  thousand  of  the 
most  courageous  Persians  fell  in  this  contest  against 
three  hundred  Spartans,  and  Xerxes  had  a lesson  con- 
cerning the  difficulties  of  the  coming  conquest. 

The  Persians  then  poured  into  central  Greece. 
They  advanced  upon  Athens,  but  found  it  deserted. 
Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  Oracle  which  had  been 
religiously  consulted,  the  non-combatants  of  Athens 


126 


Ancient  Empires. 


had  been  sent  to  a place  of  safety,  while  the  fight- 
ing men  went  aboard  their  fleet.  The  Persian  vessels 
meantime  had  accompanied  the  army  along  the  coast. 
In  three  successive  sea  fights  the  Greeks  had  held 
their  own  against  the  Persians,  although  greatly  in- 
ferior in  numbers.  At  the  destruction  of  Athens  the 
Athenian  fleet  took  a position  at  Salamis  between  the 
island  and  the  shore.  In  the  fight  that  followed  five 
hundred  Persian  ships  were  sunk  and  the  sea  for 
miles  around  was  covered  with  broken  galleys. 
Xerxes  witnessed  the  battle  and  was  so  disheartened 
that  he  returned  to  Asia.  His  army  was  ordered  to 
proceed  at  once  to  the  Hellespont  in  order  to  guard 
the  bridges.  His  stores  were  exhausted,  vast  num- 
bers of  his  troops  had  died  from  famine ; and,  to 
complete  his  misfortunes,  a furious  storm  shattered 
his  bridge,  and  the  army  was  obliged  to  cross  the 
strait  in  ships.  Eight  months  from  the  day  that  the 
magnificent  host  set  out  upon  the  great  conquest, 
only  a small  remnant  reached  the  Lydian  capital. 

Mardonius  was  left  behind  in  Thessaly  with  two 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  picked  men  to  prevent 
pursuit,  and  if  possible  to  renew  in  the  following  year 
the  efifort  to  conquer  Greece,  but  his  army  was  de- 
feated at  Platsea,  and  the  remnant  of  his  fleet  de- 
stroyed at  Mycale.  These  disasters  annihilated  the 
Persian  power  in  Europe.  For  twelve  years  no  Per- 
sian ship  dared  to  show  itself  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea. 

During  the  remainder  of  his  reign  Xerxes,  utterly 
disheartened,  attempted  no  more  conquests,  but  gave 


The  Persians. 


127 

himseif  up  to  the  most  enervating  pleasures  and  lux- 
uries. He  shut  himself  up  in  his  harem,  taking  no 
more  interest  in  matters  of  state,  and  was  murdered 
B.  C.  465,  by  Artabanus,  captain  of  his  guard,  and 
Aspamitres',  his  chamberlain.  Artabanus  caused  the 
youngest  son  of  Xerxes,  Artaxerxes  I,  to  be  placed 
on  the  throne.  Artaxerxes  soon  discovered  that  his 
father  had  been  murdered  and  the  guilty  ones  were 
put  to  death. 

The  reign  of  Artaxerxes  was  disturbed  by  a revolt 
of  Lybia  and  Egypt,  B.  C.  460.  This  revolt  had  been 
instigated  by  Athens,  which  sent  a fleet  of  two  hun- 
dred ships  to  aid  the  Egyptians.  The  Persian  army 
succeeded  in  putting  down  the  revolt  and  the  Lybian 
king,  Inarus  being  taken  prisoner,  was  crucified  by 
order  of  Artaxerxes.  The  Greek  fleet  was  defeated 
and  destroyed.  Athens,  smarting  under  this  loss,  re- 
newed its  exertions  with  such  vigor,  B.  C.  449,  that 
Persia  was  about  to  lose  both  Egypt  and  Cyprus.  Ar- 
taxerxes, finding  hifnself  in  this  strait,  consented  to 
the  humiliating  treaty — known  as  the  Peace  of  Cabas. 
Persia  was  compelled  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  and  all  the  Greek  cities  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Hellespont  to  Phaselis  in  Lydia  were 
ceded  to  the  Athenian  confederacy.  Treachery  and 
corruption  had  taken  hold  of  the  Persian  Empire,  and 
it  was  unable  to  contend  against  the  revolts  and  de- 
mands of  its  numerous  provinces,  except  through  the 
means  of  bribery,  which  only  complicated  the  diffi- 
culties. In  the  year  B.  C.  407,  occurred  the  death 
of  Darius  Nothus,  king  of  Persia,  who  was  succeed- 


128 


Ancient  Empires. 


ed  by  Arsaces,  under  the  title  of  Artaxerxes  II.  As 
Arsaces  had  not  been  born  in  the  purple  his  right  to 
the  throne  was  disputed.  Before  the  death  of  Darius 
Nothus  the  question  of  succession  had  been  raised  by 
Parysatis,  the  queen,  who  favored  her  youngest  son, 
Cyrus,  reinforcing  his  claim  by  the  fact  that  he  had 
been  born  in  the  purple;  but  Darius  mentioned  Arta- 
xerxes as  his  successor.  On  the  day  of  the  corona- 
tion Cyrus  attempted,  his  brother’s  life,  for  which 
he  was  arrested  and  condemned  to  die.  His  mother 
interceded  so  strongly  for  his  life  that  Cyrus  was 
pardoned  and  given  a satrapy  in  Asia  Minor.  He 
immediately  organized  a body  of  Greek  mercenaries, 
with  the  ostensible  object  of  making  war  on  the  Pise- 
dians  of  Western  Taurus,  but  with  the  real  object  of 
killing  his  brother  and  making  himself  king  of  Persia. 
Thirteen  thousand  Greek  soldiers  and  one  hundred 
thousand  provincials,  were  gathered  together  and 
marched  forward  from  Sardis  through  Lydia  and 
Phrygia.  The  Greeks  discovered  the  real  object  of 
Cyrus  when  they  came  into  Cilicia.  At  first  the 
Greeks  refused  to  proceed  farther,  but  were  finally 
won  over  to  the  project.  Artaxerxes  fully  aroused  to 
his  danger,  raised  a force  of  nine  hundred  thousand 
men  and  met  Cyrus  on  the  famous  field  of  Cunaxa. 
In  the  midst  of  the  battle,  Cyrus,  burning  with  re- 
venge, pressed  forward  to  meet  his  brother  Arta- 
xerxes in  personal  combat,  and  was  killed  by  a javelin. 

The  whole  cause  of  the  war  now  being  destroyed, 
the  army  of  Cyrus  went  to  pieces  and  the  Greeks 
were  left  in  the  midst  of  a hostile  country  many  hun- 


The  Persians. 


129 


dred  miles  from  home.  It  was  now  that  the  famous 
Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  began,  which  Xeno- 
phon, the  leader,  has  so  eloquently  described.  It 
was  in  the  midst  of  winter  the  Greeks,  were  without 
guides  and  in  ignorance  of  the  country.  Their  way 
home  lay  across  the  bleak  table  lands  of  Armenia,  with  a 
powerful  Persian  army  almost  surrounding  them,  but 
such  was  their  valor  and  discipline  that  the  heroic 
band  successfully  overcame  the  obstacles  in  their  way 
and  safely  returned  to  their'  native  country.  Not- 
withstanding the  success  of  Artaxerxes  in  crushing 
the  revolt  of  Cyrus,  Persia  was  rapidly  declining,  and 
the  whole  empire  was  at  the  point  of  dissolution  on 
the  death  of  Artaxerxes,  B.  C.  359. 

During  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II  his  mother, 
the  infamous  Parysatis,  was  the  ruling  spirit.  Her 
cruel  and  bloody  deeds  are  scarcely  to  be  paralleled 
in  history.  As  a result  irreconcilable  hatred  arose. 
Executions,  murders  and  suicides  were  so  numerous 
that  the  reigning  race  became  almost  extinct.  Ochus, 
the  youngest  son  of  Artaxerxes,  came  to  the  throne, 
and  made  an  attempt  to  recover  the  kingdoms  that 
had  been  lost  to  his  father.  Difficulties  arose  during 
his  reign  which  brought  him  into  contact  with  Philip, 
who  had  now  become  king  of  Macedon,  and  the  way 
was  prepared  for  the  victorious  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  By  the  aid  of  Greek  mercenaries 
Ochus  was  enabled  to  reconquer  Phoenicia  and  Egypt 
B.  C.  346.  The  promising  course  of  conquest  engaged 
in  by  Ochus  was  brought  to  an  end  by  his  savage 
cruelties  which  raised  implacable  enemies  in  his  court. 


130 


Ancient  Empires. 


His  prime  minister,  Bagoas,  assassinated  him  B.  C. 
338.  Bagoas  destroyed  all  the  children  of  Ochus  and 
placed  a grandson  of  Darius  II,  named  Codomannus, 
upon  the  throne,  as  Darius  III.  The  first  act  of  this 
king  was  to  cause  the  execution  of  Bagoas,  B.  C.  334. 
Darius  III  was  one  of  the  best  sovereigns  that  ever 
sat  on  the  throne  of  Persia.  But  his  ability  was  not 
equal  to  the  task  of  preserving  the  empire  from  its 
numerous  dangers.  Before  he  came  to  the  throne 
Macedon  had  begun  to  rise  under  King  Philip.  When 
Alexander  became  king  the  inevitable  final  war  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  Persians  was  at  hand.  Darius 
did  not  properly  estimate  the  powers  of  the  youthful 
Alexander  and  so  allowed  him  unopposed  to  cross 
into  Asia  with  the  apparently  insignificant  army  of 
thirty-five  thousand  men,  B.  C.  334.  A battle  was 
fought  at  Granicus  in  which  the  Persians  were  de- 
feated and  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Macedonian  conqueror.  In  the  spring 
of  B.  C.  333,  an  attempt  to  stay  the  progress  of 
Alexander  was  made  by  the  Persians  at  Issus,  but 
a great  defeat  was  the  result.  The  Persian  army 
was  routed  and  Darius  was  compelled  to  fly  for  his 
life.  His  wife,  mother  and  children  were  taken  pris- 
oners by  the  Greeks,  but  they  were  treated  with  the 
greatest  of  kindness. 

The  victorious  Alexander  pressed  forward  and  a de- 
cisive battle  was  fought  near  Arbela,  in  the  great 
Assyrian  plain  east  of  the  Tigris.  It  is  said  that 
Darius  lost  here  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  men. 
Darius  fled  to  the  city  of  Arbela,  about  twenty  miles 


The  Persians. 


131 


distant,  where  he  was  seized  by  his  enraged  generals 
and  loaded  with  chains.  They  attempted  to  get  out 
of  the  country  with  their  king,  but  they  were  so  close- 
ly pursued  by  the  Macedonians  that  escape  became 
impossible.  Thus  hemmed  in  they  turned  in  their 
rage  upon  Darius,  mortally  wounded  him  and  left 
him  by  the  roadside  to  die.  A Macedonian  soldier 
discovered  the  dying  king  and  brought  him  a cup 
of  water.  Darius  thanked  his  generous  enemy  and 
said  that  his  inability  to  reward  the  kindness  added 
bitterness  to  his  dying  hour.  He  commended  the  sol- 
dier to  the  notice  of  Alexander  and  then  expired. 
Alexander  arrived  at  this  moment  and  was  deeply 
moved.  He  covered  the  body  of  the  king  with  his 
own  mantle  and  ordered  it  to  be  buried  at  Pasar- 
gadae  with  royal  honors.  He  afterward  provided  for 
the  fitting  education  of  the  children  of  Darius  and 
the  care  of  his  family  as  their  station  deserved.  The 
battle  of  Arbela  was  the  close  of  the  Persian  Em- 
pire and  Alexander  soon  added  the  entire  country 
to  his  own  dominions. 


THE  PARTHIANS. 

The  first  information  that  we  have  concerning 
the  Parthians  comes  from  the  assistance  they  gave 
to  the  pseudo  Smerdis,  who  attempted  to  secure  the 
throne  of  Persia  from  Darius  Hystaspis.  From  that 
circumstance,  which  occurred  B.  C.  521,  we  learn 
that  Parthia  was  a satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire. 

The  history  of  Parthia  is  that  of  a province  of 
Persia  until  the  conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great.  At 
the  death  of  Alexander  his  empire  was  divided  among 
his  generals  and  Seleucus,  surnamed  Nicator,  was 
made  a satrap  of  Babylonia.  This  able  general,  sec- 
ond only  to  Alexander  himself,  engaged  in  a war 
with  Antigonus,  conquered  Babylon,  B.  C.  312,  ex- 
tended his  conquest  through  Central  Asia  and  India, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  king  about  the  year  B.  C. 
306.  For  some  reason  Seleucus  wearied  of  Babylon 
and  so  determined  to  build  his  capital  about  forty 
miles  to  the  northeast  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris. 
This  city  which  he  then  founded  was  named  Seleucia, 
and  in  a short  time  it  was  one  of  the  principal  cities  of 
Asia.  For  some  unknown  reason  Seleucus  again  re- 
moved the  center  of  his  court  from  the  well  chosen 
position  in  Mesopotamia  to  the  far  southwest  on  the 
borders  of  his  empire.  A little  later  he  ceased  from 
the  conciliating  policy  which  Alexander  had  inaugu- 
rated among  the  Asiatics,  and  began  to  elevate  only 
Greeks  to  positions  of  power.  This  alienated  the  na- 


(132) 


The  Parthians. 


183 


tive  population  and  was  a source  of  great  weakness 
to  him. 

In  the  year  B.  C.  280,  Seleucus  was  assassinated 
at  Lysimachia.  For  thirty  years  his  successors  con- 
tinued his  disastrous  policy  of  alienating  the  natives 
and  of  interfering  in  quarrels  of  the  western  Greeks. 

At  this  time  the  kingdom  of  Parthia,  which  had 
been  subordinate  for  centuries  to  Persia  and  the  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander,  began  to  emerge  from  its  ob- 
scurity through  the  vigor  and  prosperity  of  its  in- 
habitants. The  administration  of  Antiochus,  the  Di- 
vine, a successor  of  Seleucus,  was  so  effeminate  that 
it  furnished  a favorable  opportunity  for  an  aggres- 
sive kingdom  to  revolt.  The  opportunity  was  not 
lost  for  Theodotus,  or  Diodotos,  a Greek  satrap  of 
Bactria,  accordingly  rebelled  and  set  up  an  independ- 
ent administration,  giving  himself  the  title  of  Basileus. 
Antiochus  made  no  attempt  to  chastise  the  rebellious 
government  and  the  fatal  precedent  of  unopposed  re- 
bellion was  allowed  to  take  its  course.  The  neigh- 
boring satrapies  saw  what  Bactria  had  been  able  to 
do  and  adopted  a similar  method,  Parthia  being  the 
first  to  follow  the  example.  The  revolution  in  Par- 
thia had  a very  different  character  from  that  in  Bac- 
tria. The  Bactrians  had  simply  passed  from  under 
a Greek  ruler  at  Antioch  to  a Greek  ruler  at  home, 
but  the  Parthians  were  animated  by  a strong  hatred 
against  the  whole  Greek  dominion.  The  origin  of 
the  Parthian  empire  is  involved  in  many  contradic- 
ting stories.  The  one  most  generally  accepted  is  that 
a certain  Arsaces  came  to  Parthia  from  Bactria, 


134 


Ancient  Empires. 


whither  he  had  been  driven  by  the  jealousy  of  Theo- 
dotus,  the  Greek  king  of  Bactria.  He  at  once  in- 
stigated a revolt  in  Parthia  and  became  leader  of  the 
rebellion.  Being  successful,  he  was  made  king  of 
Parthia  and  founder  of  the  dynasty.  Another  ac- 
count speaks  of  Arsaces  as  being  a Scythian,  from 
the  nation  called  Dahae,  who  invaded  Parthia,  over- 
threw the  Greek . government  and  thus  made  himself 
king.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  truth  in  this 
matter,  it  is  certain  that  Arsaces  expelled  the  Greeks 
and  was  made  king  by  the  gratified  people  with  the 
title  of  Arsaces  I,  the  dynasty  being  henceforth  known 
as  the  Arsacidae. 

Arsaces  I died  B.  C.  247  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Tiradates,  who  took  the  title  of  Arsaces 
II.  Under  him  the  boundaries  of  Parthia  were  great- 
ly enlarged  and  the  prosperity  of  the  country  made 
sure. 

In  B.  C.  245  Ptolemy-Euergetes,  king  of  Egypt, 
entered  Asia  and  captured  Antioch.  He  then  came 
on  into  Mesopotamia  and  overthrew  every  kingdom 
in  his  path.  Bactria  and  Parthia  alone  survived. 
Owing  to  a rebellion  in  Egypt,  the  king  was  sud- 
denly recalled  home  and  Bactria  and  Parthia  were 
thus  saved  from  his  invasion.  Meanwhile,  the  re- 
sources of  the  Parthian  king  had  enormously  in- 
creased. A multitude  of  soldiers  were  at  his  com- 
mand and  unlimited  supplies.  Accordingly  he  be- 
came ambitious,  organized  an  army,  and  began  a 
career  of  conquest.  The  first  successful  opposition 
he  met  was  from  Seleucus  Callinicus,  king  of  Syria. 


The  Parthians. 


135 


Callinicus  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Bactria  against 
Parthia  and  it  seemed  for  a time  that  Parthian  inde- 
pendence was  at  stake.  Fortunately  for  Tiridates, 
known  as  Arsaces  II,  Theodotus,  king  of  Bactria, 
died,  and  the  son  who  succeeded  his  father,  repu- 
diated the  unnatural  alliance  with  the  Greek  rulers 
and  entered  into  a league  with  Parthia.  The  allied 
armies  then  fought  a decisive  battle  with  the  Syrians 
and  drove  them  from  the  country,  B.  C.  237.  This 
invasion  of  Callinicus  taught  the  Parthians  not  to 
rely  alone  upon  their  cavalry,  but  to  fortify  their 
country  against  other  possible  invasions.  Thus  a 
character  of  stability  was  given  to  the  country. 

About  the  year  B.  C.  214,  Arsaces  II  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Artabanus  I.  Under  this 
king  the  conquest  of  Media  was  planned  and  com- 
pleted. 

Antiochus  III,  king  of  Syria,  could  not  afford  to 
allow  his  eastern  dependencies  to  be  thus  taken  from 
him  without  an  effort  for  their  recovery.  Therefore, 
he  gathered  together  a large  army  with  which  he  re- 
conquered Mesopotamia.  He  passed  successfully  the 
Tigris  river  and  the  Zagros  mountains,  entered  Media, 
restoring  there  the  Syrian  authority  and  then  moved 
forward  against  Parthia.  To  do  this,  it  was  neces- 
sary for  him  to  traverse  the  Iranian  desert.  Arta- 
banus, seeing  the  advantage  this  circumstance  afford- 
ed, sent  a detachment  of  his  best  cavalry  into  the 
desert  to  harass  the  Syrian  army.  The  wells  upon 
which  Antiochus  depended  for  water  were  poisoned 
and  every  source  of  supply  for  provisions  was  de- 


136 


Ancient  Empires. 


stroyed.  Notwithstanding  this  the  Syrian  army  suc- 
ceeded in  entering  Hyrcania  and  pressed  on  without 
the  Parthians  being  able  to  stop  it.  Artabanus  care- 
fully avoided  a decisive  battle  with  the  superior  Syrian 
forces  and  so  wearied  the  Syrian  king  with  fruitless 
campaigning  that  both  armies  arrived  at  an  honor- 
able peace. 

Many  years  followed  which  the  ancient  historians 
considered  of  so  little  importance  that  no  records  were 
made  of  any  events  in  that  time.  It  was  not  until 
Rome  had  asserted  its  supremacy  over  the  Grecians 
that  Parthia  emerged  from  the  obscurity  in  which 
it  had  fallen. 

The  revival  of  this  country  began  B.  C.  181,  the 
first  sign  of  their  returning  activity  being  the  suc- 
cessful war  which  they  waged  against  the  Mardi,  a 
mountain  people,  living  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  El- 
burz range.  The  most  important  named  among  the 
Parthian  monarchs  is  Mithridates.  His  reign  cov- 
ered a period  of  thirty-seven  years,  the  most  impor- 
tant and  interesting  in  Parthian  history. 

When  Mithridates  came  to  power  in  Parthia  he 
found  the  chief  governments  of  Asia  to  be  in  a state 
of  inactivity  and  weakness.  Bactria,  his  most  ener- 
getic neighbor,  became  engaged  in  an  obstinate  war 
with  a neighboring  tribe  on  the  east.  Under  some 
pretext  that  is  now  unknown,  Mithridates  led  his  army 
into  the  adjacent  parts  of  Bactria  and  seized  two  of 
its  provinces.  The  Syrian  crown  at  this  time  was 
in  the  hands  of  Antiochus-Eupator,  an  incapable 
youth  under  control  of  the  regent  Lysias.  The  en- 


The  Parthians. 


137 


ergies  of  Syria  had  been  exhausted  in  a war  with  the 
Jews,  and  dissensions  concerning  the  regency  weak- 
ened the  state.  During  this  condition  of  affairs  Mith- 
ridates  threw  his  army  into  Media,  a province  of 
Syria.  The  Medians  were  already  so  near  liberty  that 
it  was  a question  which  would  be  the  greater  obstacle 
to  Parthian  ambition,  the  Syrian  army  or  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Medes  themselves,  but  Mithridates  was 
ultimately  successful. 

With  the  addition  of  Media  to  his  dominions,  the 
king  of  Parthia  entered  upon  his  career  as  imperial 
conqueror.  The  Persians  and  Babylonians  prefer- 
ring Parthian  supremacy  to  that  of  the  Grecian  gov- 
ernment at  Antioch,  at  the  first  show  of  force,  cast 
their  fortunes  with  Mithridates  and  thus,  almost  with- 
out a struggle,  the  extensive  region  in  the  southwest 
including  the  Babylonian  plain  and  the  whole  coun- 
try eastward  of  the  Carmanian  desert,  were  added 
to  the  dominions  of  Parthia. 

The  'energies  of  Eucratidas,  king  of  Bactria,  were 
so  constantly  engaged  in  the  difficulties  in  which  he 
was  involved  on  his  borders  next  to  India,  that  he 
was  obliged  to  ignore  the  ambitions  of  his  neighbor. 
It  seems  that  the  chief  desire  of  • Eucratidas  was  to 
extend  his  dominions  eastward  and  leave  Mithridates 
free  to  advance  westward.  Both  of  these  being  ex- 
ceedingly distasteful  to  the  Bactrians,  Eucratidas  was 
removed  from  the  throne  by  violence  and  his  son, 
Prince  Heliocles,  was  made  king,  thus  immediately 
reversing  the  policy  of  his  father.  Mithridates,  be- 
ing on  the  alert,  perceived  the  danger  arising  in  Bac- 


138 


Ancient  Empires. 


tria,  and  immediately  throwing  his  army  into  that 
territory,  quickly  defeated  the  Bactrian  army,  cap- 
tured Heliocles,  and  added  his  kingdom  to  the  rapidly 
expanding  Parthian  empire. 

Through  a period  of  one  hundred  and  seventy  years 
the  Seleucid  kings  had  been  supreme  over  the  Asiatic 
countries  west  of  India,  but  at  this  time  nothing  re- 
mained to  Demetrius  II  but  a comparatively  small 
territory  about  Antioch.  The  encroachments  of  Par- 
thia  and  its  growing  power  were  such  that  the  ex- 
istence of  Syrian  supremacy  was  now  at  stake.  The 
Syrian  army  advanced  beyond  the  Mesopotamian  riv- 
ers and  won  several  battles,  but  by  a sudden  onslaught 
the  Parthian  king  routed  the  Syrians  and  captured 
Demetrius,  after  which  the  Syrian  army  went  to 
pieces. 

Thirty-seven  years  had  now  been  occupied  in  the 
conquests  of  Mithridates  and  he  had  become  an  old 
man.  His  empire  had  reached  its  greatest  territorial 
extent  and  became  the  greatest  power  of  Western 
Asia.  Mithridates  consolidated  his  authority  as  much 
as  possible  and  constructed  a strong  government.  He 
died  B.  C.  136.  The  crown  descended  to  his  son, 
Phraates  II. 

The  Syrian  empire  was  bestowed  upon  Antiochus- 
Sidetes,  brother  of  Demetrius,  who  was  at  that  time 
confined  in  regal  state  at  Hyrcania. 

Antiochus  cherished  the  dream  of  recovering  the 
lost  Syrian  provinces  from  the  Parthian  conqueror, 
and  accordingly  equipped  an  army  which  he  led  into 
Mesopotamia.  As  in  the  case  of  his  brother,  Deme- 


The  Parthians. 


139 


trius,  his  preliminary  battles  were  successful,  and  he 
obliged  the  Parthian  king  to  recede  toward  the*  cen- 
tral parts  of  the  empire. 

As  the  chief  men  in  the  cities  of  the  lost  Syrian 
provinces  were  Greeks,  at  the  first  opportunity  they 
abandoned  their  Parthian  allegiance  and  went  over 
to  Antiochus.  A brilliant  expedient  was  now  adopted 
by  the  Parthian  king.  He  released  his  prisoner,  De- 
metrius, who  flew  as  quickly  as  possible  to  Antioch. 
The  release  of  Demetrius  was  unknown  to  Antiochus, 
who  pressed  onward  against  Phraates  II,  the  Parthian 
king,  until  winter  set  in,  when  he  distributed  his  army 
among  the  cities  and  awaited  a more  suitable  season 
for  campaigning.  Meantime,  Demetrius,  who  had 
been  deposed  in  favor  of  his  brother,  Antiochus,  was 
stirring  up  discontent  at  Antioch,  and  the  Syrian  sol- 
diers, who  had  been  quartered  among  the  Mesopo- 
tamian cities  for  the  winter,  had  become  so  riotous 
and  lawless  that  the  people  heartily  repented  hav- 
ing broken  their  allegiance  with  Parthia.  Having 
been  made  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  situation, 
Phraates  sent  emissaries  into  these  cities  and  organ- 
ized a plot  for  the  destruction  of  the  Syrian  army. 
At  a given  time  the  citizens  sprang  to  arms,  sur- 
rounded the  quarters  of  the  drunken  soldiers  and  fell 
upon  them  with  such  fury  that  scarcely  a Syrian  was 
left  alive.  When  Antiochus  heard  of  this  destructive 
insurrection,  he  flew  to  the  assistance  of  the  soldiers 
with  a body  of  troops  which  he  had  safely  held  un- 
der his  own  control  on  the  plains  outside  of  the  cities. 
However,  he  was  too  late.  Phraates  threw  the  Par- 


140 


Ancient  Empires. 


thian  cavalry  against  him,  scattered  the  Syrian  troops 
and  slew  Antiochus.  According  to  Diodorus-Siceu- 
lus,  three  hundred  thousand  Syrians  perished  in  the 
insurrection  and  during  the  battle  that  followed.  In 
any  event  not  a vestige  of  the  Syrian  army  remained. 
The  triumph  of  Phraates  was  absolute  and  Parthian 
authority  became  undisputed  over  all  the  vast  terri- 
tory which  they  had  conquered. 

As  soon  as  it  was  known  in  Judea  that  Antiochus 
was  slain,  the  Jews  arose  against  their  hated  masters 
and  achieved  their  independence.  Regardless  of  the 
strenuous  efforts  of  the  succeeding  kings  of  Antioch, 
it  was  sixty-three  years  before  Palestine  was  again 
conquered  and  this  was  then  done  not  by  the  Syrians, 
but  by  the  superior  power  of  the  victorious  Romans. 

No  sooner  had  Phraates  destroyed  his  Syrian  ene- 
my than  a more  formidable  enemy  appeared  on  the 
north.  Fearing  that  his  own  warriors  could  not  suc- 
cessfully compete  against  the  troops  of  Antiochus, 
he  had  invited  a body  of  Scythian  warriors  to  come 
to  his  assistance.  When  they  reached  the  borders  of 
the  Parthian  empire,  Phraates  had  vanquished  his 
enemy  and  therefore  no  longer  needed  the  assistance 
of  his  wild  neighbors,  but  they  refused  to  return 
home  without  the  liberal  compensation  which  had 
been  promised  them.  From  the  scene  of  his  great 
Syrian  victory  he  was  obliged  to  turn  against  his 
Scythian  allies.  In  the  midst  of  the  battle  that  fol- 
lowed the  Greek  contingent  that  was  assisting  him 
treacherously  deserted  him  and  went  over  to  the  Scy- 
thians. The  Parthians,  thus  weakened,  were  routed 


The  Parthians. 


141 


and  swept  from  the  field,  Phraates,  himself,  being 
among  the  slain.  The  Scythians  might  now  have 
conquered  the  entire  territory  of  Western  Asia  if 
they  had  possessed  the  instinct  of  organization. 
However,  they  were  contented  with  the  spoils  they 
received  and  returned  home. 

The  Greek  army,  now  finding  themselves  free  and 
supreme,  moved  westward,  liberating  all  the  provinces 
and  cities  in  their  course. 

Phraates  was  still  a young  man  when  he  died,  B. 
C.  127,  and  there  was  no  son  left  to  succeed  him. 
The  crown  fell  to  his  uncle,  Artabanus  II. 

No  sooner  were  the  Parthians  relieved  of  the  Greeks 
and  the  Scythians  than  the  barbarious  hordes  from 
unknown  regions  north  and  east,  beyond  the  Jaxartes, 
poured  in  upon  them.  According  to  Herodotus  and 
Strabo  these  savage  tribes  were  nameless  and  num- 
berless. They  had  wagons  and  carts  peculiar  to  the 
woods  and  steppes,  and.  they  carried  with  them  their 
women  and  children,  household  goods,  herds  and  all  the 
possessions  which  they  considered  of  any  value.  All 
their  energies  and  pleasure  were  in  hunting,  war  and 
plunder.  In  the  battle  against  the  first  advancing 
tribes  of  this  overwhelming  barbaric  invasion,  Arta- 
banus was  killed,  and  the  crown  was  then  transferred 
to  Mithridates  II,  his  son.  The  stream  of  invasion 
was  turned  aside,  but  all  the  resources  of  Parthia 
were  exhausted  in  the  struggle  to  protect  itself  against 
the  seemingly  inexhaustible  numbers. 

A period  of  obscurity  in  Parthian  history  prevails 
from  this  time  until  the  legions  of  Rome  came  sweep- 


142 


Ancient  Empires. 


in g over  Asia  from  the  west.  Crasus,  with  forty 
thousand  Roman  soldiers,  reached  the  river  Belik, 
about  midway  between  Carrhae  and  Ichnae,  on  the 
6th  of  May  in  the  year  B.  C.  54,  and  there  he  was' 
met  by  the  Parthian  army  under  the  command  of 
Surena. 

The  Roman  cavalry  were  unaccustomed  to  defeat. 
Crasus,  son  of  the  commander-in-chief,  at  the  head 
of  six  thousand  horsemen,  charged  furiously  upon 
the  Parthians.  Unaccustomed  to  such  a violent  at- 
tack the  Parthians  fell  back  as  if  in  a panic.  The 
young  Crasus  followed  the  flying  enemy  until  out  of 
sight  of  the  main  army,  when  suddenly  the  Parthian 
cavalry  recovered  itself,  turned  upon  the  Romans  and 
completely  surrounded  them.  Roman  valor  was  of 
no  avail  and  the  forces  of  Crasus  were  beaten  down 
almost  to  a man.  The  young  commander  was  him- 
self slain;  his  head  was  stuck  upon  a pike  and  carried 
at  the  head  of  the  victorious  Parthians  in  full  view 
of  the  Roman  army.  Shattered  by  the  disastrous 
battle,  the  legions  began  to  recede  from  the  field ; 
the  wounded  being  abandoned  were  slain  by  the  pur- 
suing Parthians.  With  the  remnant  of  the  army 
Crasus  succeeded  in  reaching  Carrhae,  where  behind 
ramparts  he  found  security. 

Surena  followed  his  retreating  foe  and  at  Carrhae 
made  overtures  to  Crasus  for  peace.  Surena  rode  out 
upon  the  plain  between  the  two  armies  with  unstrung 
bow  and  outstretched  hand,  calling  upon  Crasus  to 
come  forth  and  confer  with  him  concerning  peace. 
Crasus  was  beyond  his  sixtieth  year  and  was  glad 


The  Parthians. 


143 


for  an  opportunity  to  end  his  unprofitable  campaign. 
Accordingly  he  went  out  to  meet  Surena.  The  terms 
of  peace  were  agreed  upon,  but  the  Parthian  com- 
mander desired  the  stipulations  to  be  reduced  to  writ- 
ing. With  this  end  in  view  the  Romans  were  induced 
to  go  to  Surena’s  tent,  but  on  the  way  Crasus  and 
his  friends  began  to  suspect  treachery  and  they  re- 
fused to  proceed  farther.  In  the  quarrel  that  en- 
sued one  of  the  Parthians  was  killed,  whereupon  Cra- 
sus and  his  men  were  set  upon  by  their  enemies  and 
slain.  At  this  unquestionably  treacherous  act,  the 
Roman  soldiers  were  in  despair.  Some  of  them  es- 
caped, but  most  of  them  surrendered  and  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  heart  of  the  Parthian  empire,  where  they 
were  colonized  and  absorbed  by  intermarriage. 

At  this  overwhelming  disaster,  the  empire  was  once 
more  extended  to  the  Euphrates  river  and  Armenia 
came  under  Parthian  dominion. 

From  this  time  until  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  after  Christ  the  history  of  Parthia  is  com- 
posed of  a monotonous  series  of  wars  with  Rome. 
At  one  time  Parthia  seemed  about  to  be  overthrown 
by  an  army  under  Cassius,  but  a terrible  pestilence 
entered  the  Roman  army  and  almost  destroyed  it. 
Superstition  ascribed  the  plague  to  supernatural  ori- 
gin. It  was  said  that  a soldier  had  broken  a cell  in 
the  temple  at  Seleucia,  from  which  had  issued  the  Spirit 
of  Death  to  punish  the  Romans  for  their  sacrilege. 
In  terror  the  army  receded  into  Europe,  spreading 
the  pestilence  in  their  wake.  Only  a few  soldiers 
reached  Italy,  but  the  pestilence  was  brought  with 


144  Ancient  Empires. 

them  and  their  country  suffered  enormously  by  its 
ravages. 

After  this  the  Parthians  conquered  nearly  all  the 
territory  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but  in  A.  D.  197 
they  were  driven  out  of  Syria.  In  the  year  A.  D. 
21 1 when  Caracalla  succeeded  his  father,  Severus,  as 
emperor  of  Rome,  Parthia  was  distracted  by  the  con- 
tention of  two  brothers  for  the  throne.  The  Roman 
emperor,  being  ambitious  to  win  fame  by  war,  took 
personal  charge  of  the  forces  in  the  east  operating 
against  Parthia.  The  emperor,  Caracalla,  being  of  a 
treacherous  disposition,  devised  a scheme  whereby  he 
might  get  an  advantage  over  his  eastern  antagonist. 
He  sent  an  embassy  to  Artabanus  IV,  king  of  Par- 
thia, with  a letter  in  which  he  proposed  a union  of 
the  Roman  and  Parthian  empires  by  entering  into 
marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the  Parthian  king. 
Artabanus  was  amazed  at  this  proposal,  but  seeing 
that  war  would  follow  his  refusal,  he  finally  yielded 
to  the  demand.  Caracalla,  accompanied  by  a strong 
military  force,  set  out  to  visit  the  Parthian  capital 
to  receive  his  bride.  Near  Ctesiphon,  he  was  met  on 
the  plain  before  the  city  by  the  Parthian  king,  with 
ceremonies  befitting  the  great  occasion.  While  the 
ceremonies  were  in  progress  a conference  was  held 
between  the  sovereigns,  when,  at  a given  signal,  the 
Roman  soldiers  drew  their  swords  and  made  such  an 
unexpected  attack  upon  the  Parthians,  that  they  were 
butchered  by  thousands.  Through  the  heroic  devo- 
tion of  his  bodyguard  the  king  escaped,  but  Ctesi- 
phon was  taken  and  plundered.  Laden  with  their 


The  Parthians. 


145 


ill-gotten  spoils,  the  Romans  returned  home  through 
Babylonia. 

In  the  spring  of  A.  D.  217  Caracalla  made  prepa- 
rations to  renew  the  war  with  Parthia,  but  in  April 
was  assassinated  in  the  temple  of  the  Moon  God 
at  Carrhae.  His  successor,  Macrinus,  would  gladly 
have  come  to  a peaceful  understanding  with  the  Par- 
thians, but  they  were  enraged  to  desperation  and  Ar- 
tabanus  refused  to  accept  the  overtures  of  Macrinus. 
The  two  armies  once  more  came  together  near  the 
city  of  Nisibis,  the  metropolis  of  Mesopotamia.  Both 
armies  were  at  their  best  and  for  three  days  the  furi- 
ous struggle  continued.  At  the  end  of  the  third  day 
the  Parthians  concentrated  their  forces  and  charged 
upon  the  Romans  in  a compact  body.  The  legions 
were  unable  to  withstand  the  onslaught  and  fled  in 
disorder  from  the  field,  but  the  victors  had  suffered 
such  enormous  losses  that  the  negotiations  for  peace 
which  followed  were  closed  without  difficulty.  Ar- 
tabanus  received  an  indemnity  in  gold  equal  to  about 
seven  and  one-half  million  dollars,  and  the  Romans 
withdrew  from  the  country. 

With  this  battle  the  three  centuries  of  war  between 
Rome  and  Parthia  came  to  an  end.  No  more  battles 
were  fought  between  them  and  a line  was  set  to  the 
aggressive  ambitions  of  the  Romans  which  they  were 
never  able  to  cross.  However,  internal  dissensions 
had  begun  to  prey  upon  the  vitals  of  Parthia  and 
its  disruption  was  at  hand. 

In  the  same  year  with  the  battle  of  Nisibis,  the 
under-king  of  Persia,  bearing  the  famous  name  of 


146 


Ancient  Empires. 


Artaxerxes,  arose  in  rebellion.  The  dissensions  of 
the  State  were  such  that  the  Persian  king  obtained 
an  easy  victory.  A battle  took  place  on  the  plain  of 
Hormuz  and  Artabanus  was  slain.  Others  followed 
the  example  of  Persia  and  the  great  empire,  which 
had  ruled  over  central  Asia  so  many  years,  was  di- 
vided into  numerous  petty  kingdoms. 


THE  HINDOOS. 


Records  of  mystery  and  strange  wisdom  are  the 
chief  historical  heritages  of  India,  but  the  religion, 
'philosophy  and  occult  art  of  the  Hindoos  have  occu- 
pied the  minds  of  men  almost  as  much  as  the  triumphs 
of  Alexanders,  Caesars  and  Napoleons.  The  learned 
men  of  India  have  cared  little  for  this  world  and  its 
glory.  Their  sole  delight  has  been  in  the  specula- 
tion and  pursuit  of  the  infinite  and  sublime.  The  arts 
and  sciences  of  war  and  peace  were  always  spurned 
as  of  inferior  worth.  The  origin  of  this  ancient 
people  is  clouded  in  such  extraordinary  and  fabulous 
legend  as  to  admit  of  no  light,  but  that  they  were 
early  far  advanced  in  civilization  is  shown  by  the 
highly  wrought  images  in  the  island  of  Elephanta, 
by  the  observatory  at  Benares,  and  in  their  sacred 
literature  which  extends  backward  far  into  pre-his- 
toric  times. 

The  first  well  verified  date  in  the  history  of  India 
is  that  of  the  enthronement  of  the  Hindoo  prince, 
Chandragupta,  contemporary  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  called  Sandracottus  by  the  Greek  historians.  He 
became  king  B.  C.  315,  one  hundred  and  sixty  years 
after  the  death  of  Gautama  the  Buddha.  The  liter- 
ature, inscriptions,  and  carved  temples  of  the  Hindoos 
furnish  no  information  of  their  political  history. 
However,  more  light  on  their  ethnic  origin  has  been 
furnished  in  recent  years  by  the  study  of  Sanskrit, 


(147) 


148 


Ancient  Empires. 


which  was  the  language  of  the  ancient  Brahmanic 
Hindoos.  From  this  came  the  new  science  of  com- 
parative philosophy  which  has  made  clear  many  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  Aryan  people. 

Mance  wrote : “As  far  as  the  eastern  and  west- 

ern oceans,  between  the  mountains,  lies  the  land  which 
the  wise  have  named  Arya-Vesta ; that  is,  inhabited 
by  honorable  men.”  The  name  Zend-Avesta,  mean- 
ing honorable  people,  was  given  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Iran,  and  Strabo  says  that  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  the  entire  region  of  the  Indus  was  called 
Ariana.  The  linguistic  descendants  of  this  word  may 
be  traced  to  Iran  for  Persia  and  Erin  for  Ireland. 
Herodotus  gives  the  earliest  accounts  of  this  great 
tract  of  civilized  country  in  his  history  written  about 
a century  before  Alexander  the  Great.  His  descrip- 
tions of  the  country  and  its  people  correspond  re- 
markably well  with  the  modern  Hindoos.  His  ac- 
counts were  probably  taken  largely  from  those  of 
Seylax  of  Caryandra,  who  was  sent  to  explore  this 
country  by  Darius  Hystaspes.  Until  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander, the  Greeks  had  but  little  knowledge  of  the  Hin- 
doos. Alexander  went  into  the  Pan  jab  with  his  vic- 
torious troops,  but  they  refused  to  proceed  further, 
and  compelled  him  to  embark  on  the  Hydaspes,  a 
tributary  of  the  Indus,  on  which  he  proceeded  one 
thousand  miles  to  the  ocean. 

Arrian  wrote  a narrative  of  this  expedition,  the 
facts  of  which  he  learned  from  the  officers  of  Alex- 
ander. It  tallies  in  its  particulars  remarkably  well 
with  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  modern  Hindoos. 


The  Hindoos. 


149 


At  the  partition  of  Alexander’s  empire,  India  fell  to 
the  share  of  Seleucus.  Familiarizing  himself  with 
this  portion  of  his  dominions  Seleucus  visited  India, 
and  two  hundred  years  later  a short  expedition  to 
that  country  was  made  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  but 
until  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  no  European 
power  attempted  to  subjugate  the  Hindoos. 

Strabo  and  some  Chinese  historians  say  that  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era  some  powerful  tribes  of  Tartars  poured  into 
Bactria  overwhelming  the  kingdoms  and  putting  an 
end  to  the  dominion  of  the  Greeks,  after  it  had  lasted 
nearly  one  hundred  and  thirty  years.  The  rising 
thirst  for  commerce  among  the  western  European 
nations  caused  them,  at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  to  seek  commercial  intercourse  with  India. 
The  richness  of  trade  with  the  people  of  India  was 
first  demonstrated  by  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  who 
raised  Alexandria  to  power  and  splendor  by  the 
profits  of  this  commerce.  As  early  as  A.  D.  1000  the 
Mohammedans  had  begun  to  acquire  great  influence 
over  the  Hindoos.  Mohammed,  a Tartar,  conquered 
most  of  the  country  and  established  his  capital  at 
Ghazna  near  the  head  waters  of  the  Indus.  Wherever 
his  power  prevailed  he  destroyed  every  vestige  of  the 
Hindoo  religion  and  established  the  Mohammedan  in 
its  stead.  In  1194  Mohammed  Gori  captured  Be- 
nares and  one  of  its  successors  fixed  the  capital  at 
Delhi.  The  sovereignty  of  Mohammed  was  over- 
whelmed in  1222  by  Genghis  Khan,  whose  empire  in 
the  following  century  was  overthrown  by  Tamerlane. 


150 


Ancient  Empires. 


During  this  time  the  European  powers  had  begun  to 
be  greatly  interested  in  the  affairs  of  Hindoostan,  and 
while  John  II  was  king  of  Portugal,  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  was  doubled,  thus  opening  a way  to  that 
country  by  sea.  In  the  reign  of  Emanual  his  successor 
Vasco  de  Gama  sailed  around  Africa  and  landed  in 
India  after  a stormy  voyage  of  thirteen  months.  Shortly 
after  this  a second  expedition  took  place  under  the 
command  of  Alvarez  Cabral  with  thirteen  vessels.  He 
first  visited  Calicut  and  through  the  intrigues  of  the 
Moors,  fifty  Portuguese  were  massacred  by  the  inhab- 
itants. Cabral,  enraged  at  this  treatment,  burned  all 
the  Arabian  vessels  in  the  harbor,  cannonaded  the 
town  and  set  sail  for  Cochin.  Because  of  this  prompt 
chastisement,  the  petty  kings  along  the  coast  hastened 
to  placate  the  Portuguese  with  spices,  gold  and  other 
gifts,  and  to  form  such  alliances  with  them  that  in  a 
short  time  the  Portuguese  were  in  possession  of  almost 
the  whole  country  of  Malabar.  Lisbon,  therefore,  soon 
became  the  grand  mart  for  all  Indian  commodities  and 
merchandise. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  numerous 
English  navigators  began  to  sail  around  Africa  to  In- 
dia. Such  was  the  success  of  Drake,  Stephens,  Cav- 
endish and  others  that  in  the  year  1600  some  of  the 
principal  merchants  in  London  formed  a company 
which  obtained  an  exclusive  privilege  of  trading  in  the 
East  Indies  for  fifteen  years.  Their  charter  was 
granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  on  December  31  of  that 
year,  and  their  commercial  prosperity  was  henceforth 
so  rapid  that  in  a few  years  they  determined  to  plant 


The  Hindoos. 


151 


colonies  in  India.  Meanwhile  the  power  of  Portugal 
had  waned  and  the  Dutch  became  the  great  rivals  of 
the  English  in  the  Eastern  trade.  Their  rivalry  was 
such  that  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  war  was  declared 
between  England  and  Holland,  with  the  result  that 
the  Dutch  were  almost  driven  from  the  Eastern  seas. 

From  this  time  on  the  English  East  India  Company 
prospered.  English  settlements  were  planted  and  in 
1686  Calcutta  was  founded  by  Governor  Charnock 
through  the  removal  of  the  factories  of  the  East  India 
Company  from  Hugh.  Exactly  two  hundred  years 
later  the  imports  of  this  city  were  three  hundred  mil- 
lion dollars,  and  the  exports  one  hundred  and  twenty 
million  dollars,  while  there  has  been  a stupendous  im- 
provement in  the  manners,  customs  and  conditions  of 
the  people. 

The  system  of  petty  kingdoms  with  the  enervating 
institutions  of  castes  and  religion,  made  the  Hindoos 
an  easy  prey  to  the  widening  commercial  encroach- 
ments of  the  English ; so  that,  after  frequent  insurrec- 
tions and  bloody  revolutions  among  the  natives,  Eng- 
land was  compelled  to  protect  its  commerce  by  taking 
military  possession  of  the  territory  now  known  as 
British  India.  On  the  second  of  May,  1876,  Queen 
Victoria  by  formal  proclamation  received  the  addi- 
tional title  of  Empress  of  India.  The  whole  body  of 
the  people  had  been  from  time  immemorial  divided  into 
four  orders.  The  highest  was  that  of  the  Brahmans, 
who  were  devoted  to  religion  and  the  cultivation  of 
philosophy.  To  the  second  belonged  the  preservation 
cf  the  state,  they  being  its  magistrates  in  peace  and  its 


152 


Ancient  Empires. 


soldiers  in  war.  The  third  caste  was  that  of  the  hus- 
bandmen and  merchants.  The  fourth  included  the 
artisans,  laborers  and  servants.  These  distinctions  de- 
scended from  generation  to  generation  and  the  individ- 
uals of  each  class  were  compelled,  invariably,  to  follow 
the  professions  of  their  forefathers.  Every  man  knew 
the  function  in  life  allotted  to  him  which  he  was  thus 
forced  to  fulfill  without  aspirations  or  ambitions.  From 
these  institutions  came  that  permanence  of  manners 
and  customs  which  so  singularly  characterizes  that  an- 
cient nation. 


THE  ORIENTALS. 


THE  CHINESE. 

The  little  that  we  know  of  the  ancient  Chinese  is 
drawn  chiefly  from  their  own  sources,  as  they  were 
unknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Syrians 
and  Arabians  are  the  first  to  mention  China,  which  they 
called  Dschina.  That  the  Chinese  empire  has  a very 
ancient  civilization  is  without  doubt,  but  that  it  has  the 
age  ascribed  in  their  sacred  books  is  too  ridiculous  for 
serious  consideration. 

There  are  evidences  that  in  the  beginning,  the  coun- 
try now  covered  by  the  Chinese  Empire  was  occupied 
by  a large  number  of  independent  tribes.  In  the  course 
of  time  these  became  united  under  one  monarchy,  be- 
cause of  the  similarity  of  country,  climate,  and  general 
conditions.  The  Emperor,  according  to  their  legends, 
descended  from  Heaven,  and  in  their  political  as  well 
as  in  their  religious  machinery,  he  was  the  image  and 
representative  of  God  on  earth.  From  the  time  of 
its  earliest  civilization,  the  nation  appeared  to  have 
remained  stationary,  in  that  worthlessness  and  apathy 
of  extreme  conservatism,  which  made  advancement  im- 
possible. According  to  the  Chinese  writers,  Fuh-hi 
founded  the  Chinese  Empire  about  B.  C.  2852.  He  is 
said  to  have  introduced  the  raising  of  cattle,  the  art  of 
writing,  the  institution  of  marriage,  and  the  divisions 
of  the  year.  He  was  succeeded  by  Shin-nung,  who 
taught  his  people  agriculture  and  medicine.  The  third 


(153) 


154 


Ancient  Empires. 


emperor,  Hwang-ti,  invented  clocks,  weapons,  ships, 
wheeled  vehicles  and  musical  instruments.  He  is  said 
also  to  have  introduced  coins,  weights  and  measures. 
Ti-ku  followed  with  the  establishment  of  schools  and 
the  introduction  of  polygamy,  Ti-ku  was  succeeded 
in  B.  C.  2357  by  his  son,  Yau.  He  advanced  the  ma- 
terial prosperity  of  his  country,  and  built  many  roads 
and  canals.  In  B.C.2207  Yu,  the  Great, became  emperor 
and  founded  the  dynasty  of  Hia.  He  was  the  first  to 
center  in  himself  all  the  resources  of  both  civil  and 
religious  power. 

There  is  little  in  Chinese  history  from  this  time  but 
a weary  succession  of  uninteresting  chronicles  until  the 
reign  of  Ching-wang,  second  sovereign  of  the  Tsin 
dynasty,  from  B.  C.  246  to  B.  C.  210.  This  emperor 
erected  the  great  wall  of  China  in  order  to  protect  his 
countr>  from  the  incursions  of  the  Tartars.  This  great 
wall,  known  to  the  Chinese  as  Wan-li-chang,  meaning 
the  myriad  mile  wall,  is  the  most  gigantic  work  of  de- 
fense ever  erected.  Its  entire  length  over  great  moun- 
tains, through  deep  valleys  and  across  wide  streams,  is 
about  one  thousand  five  hundred  miles.  The  eastern 
section  has  a height  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet,  and 
such  a breadth  that  six  horsemen  may  conveniently  ride 
abreast  upon  it.  At  frequent  intervals  there  are  brick 
towers  forty  feet  high,  and  through  most  of  the  dis- 
tance the  foundation  is  made  of  solid  granite, 

Ching-wang  resolved  that  the  history  of  China 
should  begin  with  his  reign.  He  was  the  first  to  assume 
the  title  of  Hwang,  or  emperor,  and  in  order  to  remove 
all  record  of  former  sovereigns,  he  ordered  all  books  to 


The  Orientals. 


155 


be  burned  in  which  their  names  were  to  be  found.  Thus 
the  earliest  literature  of  China  was  destroyed,  including 
the  writing  of  Confucius  and  Mencius.  All  that  is 
known  of  their  works  is  obtained  from  the  few  frag- 
ments that  escaped  destruction. 

Confu-tsee,  known  to  history  as  Confucius,  was  con- 
temporary with  Pythagoras  about  B.  C.  550.  Mang- 
tsze,  known  under  the  Latinized  name,  Mencius,  is  sec- 
ond as  a moral  teacher  in  China  after  Confucius.  His 
birth  is  believed  to  have  taken  place  about  B.  C.  372. 
In  the  reign  of  Ming-ti  A.  D.  58  to  A.  D.  76,  a Buddhist 
priest  named  Ho-shung  came  from  India  into  China  and 
introduced  the  Buddhist  religion.  There  is  a tradition 
among  the  Armenian  Christians  that  the  Apostle 
Thomas  visited  China  during  the  reign  of  Ming-ti. 

The  first  ambitious  warrior  to  occupy  the  throne  of 
China  was  the  emperor  Kowt-sung.  He  organized  an 
army  and  led  it  westward  to  the  confines  of  Persia. 
Here  he  died  and  was  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  his 
son  Tai-tsung,  who  was  the  great  hero  of  Chinese  ro- 
mance. He  introduced  many  changes  both  in  civil  and 
religious  affairs.  To  him  is  attributed  most  that  is 
commendable  in  the  present  Chinese  civilization.  In 
A.  D.  636  the  Nestorian  monk,  Olopen,  visited  China 
and  spent  several  years  preaching  Christianity.  The 
successors  of  Tai-tsung  were  weak  and  unambitious. 
As  a result  the  empire  was  frequently  plunged  into 
civil  wars,  and  the  Tartars  steadily  increased  the  extent 
of  their  encroachments.  In  A.  D.  1215,  under  Zen-gis- 
Khan,  they  overran  China,  and  advanced  to  Pekin.  In 
1279  She-tsu,  better  known  as  Kublai  Khan,  estab- 


156 


Ancient  Empires. 


lished  the  first  Mongol  dynasty  in  China.  The  Mon- 
gols did  not  interfere  with  the  national  customs  or 
religion,  but  favored  Buddhism.  It  was  during  the 
reign  of  Kublai  Khan  that  the  famous  European  trav- 
eler, Marco  Polo,  visited  China.  He  was  hospitably 
entertained  by  the  emperor  and  returned  to  Europe 
with  the  first  accurate  information  about  the  Chinese. 
Following  the  death  of  Kublai  Khan,  Tartar  power 
declined  in  China. 

The  first  and  largest  revolution  recorded  in  the  his- 
tory of  China  occurred  in  1342,  following  a famine 
which  was  said  to  have  swept  away  thirteen  million 
people.  In  1358  a Buddhist  monk  named  Chu  Yuen- 
chang  became  the  leader  of  a revolution,  overthrew 
the  Mongol  dynasty,  and  became  emperor  under  the 
name  of  Hung-wu.  He  founded  the  dynasty  which 
governed  China  for  two  hundred  and  seventy-six 
years.  During  the  reign  of  Emperor  Shi-tsung,  which 
began  in  the  year  1522,  the  first  commercial  intercourse 
with  Europeans  was  opened  with  China  by  the  Portu- 
guese who  had  established  themselves  in  neighboring 
islands.  The  Dutch  endeavored  in  1604  to  open  a 
trade  with  China  by  sending  three  vessels  to  that  coun- 
try, but  they  were  refused  admittance  at  every  Chinese 
port.  In  1662  the  Dutch  attempted,  by  force,  to  open 
up  a trade  with  China,  but  were  driven  away.  They 
secured  possession  of  the  Pescadore  Islands,  which 
they  afterward  exchanged  for  Formosa.  Meanwhile 
there  was  a constant  struggle  going  on  between  the 
Mantchoos  and  the  Chinese  for  supremacy.  At  last 
through  the  instigation  of  the  emperor  of  China,  the 


The  Orientals. 


157 


king  of  Mantchooria  was  assassinated.  This  act  so  ex- 
asperated the  Mantchoors  that  a civil  war  broke  out  in 
1635  and  lasted  nine  years,  resulting  in  a temporary 
overthrow  of  the  reigning  power,  and  the  final  eleva- 
tion to  the  throne  of  Sunchi,  son  of  the  king  of  Mant- 
chooria. This  Mantchoo  prince  was  a mere  youth 
when  he  came  to  the  throne.  Strange  to  say,  his  educa- 
tion had  been  conducted  by  a German  Jesuit  named 
Adam  Schall  who,  some  years  later,  was  made  prime 
minister  of  China. 

The  Dutch  again  renewed  their  attempts  in  1653  to 
open  a trade  with  China,  but  were  again  refused.  How- 
ever, trading  rights  were  granted  to  the  Russians,  who 
have  ever  since  made  the  most  of  their  advantages.  In 
1661  Kang-hi  came  to  the  throne  and  chose  for  his 
chief  counselors  two  Frenchmen  named  Bouvet  and 
Gervillon.  This  emperor  enlarged  his  dominions  by 
the  conquest  of  Thibet  and  Formosa.  During  his  reign 
the  empire  was  surveyed.  A map  of  it  was  made  by 
European  engineers,  and  several  institutions  of  learn- 
ing were  established  for  the  promotion  of  science  and 
literature.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Kang-hi 
an  earthquake  destroyed  Pekin,  during  which  four 
hundred  thousand  persons  perished.  In  1736  Kien- 
lung  came  to  the  throne,  and  extended  his  dominions 
by  the  conquest  of  the  greater  part  of  central  Asia. 
Like  his  father  he  distrusted  the  Christian  missionaries 
and  persecuted  them  severely.  Most  of  the  schools 
established  by  them  were  destroyed,  and  much  of  their 
work  rendered  useless.  Kien-lung  refused  to  open 
commercial  relations  with  all  Europeans  excepting  the 


158 


Ancient  Empires. 


Russians,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  establish  an  exten- 
sive commerce  in  the  northern  provinces  of  the  empire. 
During  the  succeeding  reign  Mr.  Morrison,  an  English 
Protestant  missionary,  succeeded  in  translating  the 
Bible  into  Chinese.  In  conjunction  with  Mr.  Milne, 
they  founded  the  Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca. 
In  the  early  part  of  1839  Lin,  the  imperial  viceroy, 
seized  by  order  of  his  government  and  destroyed  all 
the  opium  at  Canton,  to  the  value  of  ten  million  dollars. 
An  imperial  edict  ordered  the  suppression  of  the  opium 
trade,  as  illicit,  and  in  this  the  English  merchants 
found  an  opportunity  too  profitable  to  be  lost.  In  re- 
taliation the  Chinese  government  declared  all  commer- 
cial relations  with  Great  Britain  at  an  end.  This  led 
to  what  is  known  as  the  Opium  War,  through  which 
England  forced  China  to  make  free  to  foreign  com- 
merce the  ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Ningpo,  Foochoo 
and  Shanghai.  As  indemnity  China  was  compelled  to 
pay  Great  Britain  twenty-one  million  dollars,  and  to 
cede  the  island  of  Hongkong.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
in  1842  the  United  States  sent  Caleb  Cushing  to  China 
and  succeeded  in  negotiating  a commercial  treaty  on 
July  3,  1844.  China  still  hated  foreigners,  and  desired 
to  have  no  intercourse  with  them.  As  a result  foreign 
nations  were  continually  subjected  to  petty  annoyances 
and  insults.  In  1857  France  and  England  resolved  to 
force  a settlement  with  China  for  numerous  infractions 
of  treaties  made  with  these  two  powers.  On  the  28th 
of  December,  Canton  was  bombarded  by  an  allied 
French  and  English  fleet.  The  next  day  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  allied  forces  which  consisted  of  about  five 


The  Orientals. 


159 


thousand  five  hundred  men.  Russia  and  the  United 
States  now  entered  into  an  alliance  with  England  and 
France  for  a combined  efifort  to  force  a more  liberal 
treatment  of  foreign  nations  by  China.  The  Chinese 
government  yielded,  and  satisfactory  treaties  were 
entered  into  with  the  four  powers  named,  which  ad- 
mitted the.  residence  of  foreign  ministers  at  Pekin, 
opened  several  ports  in  addition  to  those  made  free  by 
the  treaty  of  Xankin,  and  provided  for  the  free  naviga- 
tion of  the  Yang-ste-Kiang  river.  An  indemnity  of 
five  and  one-half  million  dollars  was  paid  to  Great 
Britain,  and  about  half  that  amount  to  France.  But, 
as  usual,  China  endeavored  to  evade  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  by  prescribing  almost  prohibitory  restrictions 
and  imposing  the  most  vexatious"  delays.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  the  British  ministers  ordered  Admiral 
Hope  to  force  the  passage  of  the  Pei-ho.  The  attempt 
to  execute  these  orders  was  defeated  and  the  English 
were  driven  back  with  great  loss  to  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  The  British  and  French  ministers  left  Shanghai 
and  called  upon  their  governments  for  instructions. 
The  American  minister,  Mr.  Ward,  decided  to  accept 
the  inconveniences  and  indignities  prescribed  by  the 
Chinese  Government,  and  so  was  enabled  to  reach 
Pekin,  but  he  was  denied  any  communication  with  the 
emperor  except  upon  such  degrading  conditions  to 
himself  and  his  country  that  he  returned  in  disgust  to 
Shanghai,  where  he  joined  his  colleagues.  The  war 
was  renewed  and  a joint  expedition  of  the  English  and 
French  was  sent  to  take  the  Chinese  capital.  The  Pei- 
ho  forts  were  taken  August  21,  i860,  and  three  days 


1G0 


Ancient  Empires. 


later  Tien-tsin  was  occupied.  The  Anglo-French  forces 
pushed  on  and  arrived  before  Pekin  October  6.  Vig- 
orous operations  against  the  city  were  at  once  begun. 
The  emperor’s  magnificent  palace  was  plundered  and 
burned.  A week  after  the  arrival  of  the  forces  one  of 
the  gates  of  the  city  was  surrendered  to  them.  The 
imperial  government  was  forced  to  renew  the  former 
treaties  and  pay  satisfactory  indemnities. 

Numerous  insurrections  occurred  of  more  or  less 
magnitude  in  various  parts  of  the  empire,  but  all  of 
them  were  suppressed.  In  1871  China  lost  the  district 
of  Kulja,  embracing  an  area  of  more  than  six  hundred 
thousand  square  miles,  which  the  Chinese  were  forced 
to  cede  to  Russia,  in  satisfaction  for  a quarrel  that 
arose  between  the  two  countries. 

In  1867  Anson  Burlingame,  a former  minister  from 
the  United  States  to  China,  found  such  favor  with  that 
government  that  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  em- 
bassy which  visited  the  various  European  powers  and 
the  United  States.  For  some  reason  the  French  were 
especially  hated  by  the  Chinese,  and  in  June,  1870,  oc- 
curred the  Tien-tsin  massacre,  in  which  the  French 
consul,  the  vice  consul  with  his  wife  and  his  interpre- 
ter, a Catholic  priest,  nine  sisters  of  charity,  a French 
merchant  and  his  wife,  and  three  Russians  were  bru- 
tally murdered  by  a mob ; the  buildings  of  the  embassy 
were  destroyed  and  foreigners  were  forbidden  to  re- 
enter the  city.  The  imperial  government  took  extreme 
measure  to  punish  all  who  were  concerned  in  the  mas- 
sacre and  a special  embassy  was  sent  to  France  to 
express  the  regret  of  the  emperor  for  the  crime.  The 


The  Orientals. 


161 


foreigners  were  invited  to  return  to  the  city,  and  spe- 
cial guards  afforded  for  their  protection.  About  this 
time  was  brought  to  a close  the  Tai-ping  rebellion 
which  had  lasted  fourteen  years.  As  a result  of  the 
suppression  of  this  rebellion,  two  men  were  brought 
into  great  prominence  before  the  world.  One  of  these 
was  Li  Hung  Chang,  and  the  other  Colonel  Charles 
George  Gordon,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  who  was  sub- 
sequently captured  and  killed  in  the  Soudan  by  the 
Mahdi.  The  services  of  General  Gordon  had  been 
enlisted  by  Li  Hung  Chang  in  the  suppression  of  the 
Tai-Pings,  and  he  was  thenceforth  popularly  known 
as  Chinese  Gordon.  At  the  death  of  the  emperor  Tung- 
Che,  the  imperial  crown  went  to  his  cousin,  Kwang- 
sen,  who  was  not  yet  four  years  of  age.  The  direct  line 
of  descent  in  the  Mantchu-Tartar  dynasty  was  thus 
broken  for  the  first  time  since  1644.  At  this  time  when 
China  was  so  much  in  need  of  a strong  mind  to  direct 
its  affairs,  all  turned  to  Li  Hung  Chang  as  the  man 
best  fitted  for  control.  He  established  military  schools, 
and  camps  of  instruction,  employing  European  officers 
to  drill  the  army  in  the  tactics  of  the  West.  A fleet  of 
gun  boats  was  built,  and  the  capital  was  impregnably 
fortified.  He  established  navy  yards  and  arsenals,  and 
went  so  far  as  to  have  several  first-class  men-of-war 
built  in  English  and  German  dock  yards.  In  1878  the 
Chinese  government  sent  its  first  permanent  embassy 
to  the  United  States,  and  the  commercial  relations  be- 
tween the  two  countries  were  greatly  extended. 

Little  worthy  of  note  took  place  in  the  unwieldy  do- 
minions of  the  Chinese  empire  until  war  occurred 


162 


Ancient  Empires. 


between  it  and  Japan,  as  the  result  of  their  long  con- 
tinued rivalry  for  supremacy  in  the  Corean  peninsula. 
The  formal  declaration  was  made  by  Japan  in  August, 
1894.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Li  Hung  Chang 
to  create  an  effective  army,  the  Chinese  were  continu- 
ally beaten  by  their  northern  neighbors,  until  they  sued 
for  peace  and  agreed  to  pay  a large  indemnity  in  terri- 
tory and  money. 

The  result  of  this  war  served  to  bring  again  to  the 
surface  the  hatred  of  the  Chinese  for  foreigners.  In 
July,  1895,  a secret  order,  known  as  the  Vegetarians, 
massacred  eight  English  missionaries  at  Whasang, 
near  Kucheng.  England  made  such  demands  for  the 
punishment  of  the  offenders  that  all  the  officers  impli- 
cated were  degraded,  and  twenty-four  of  the  Vegeta- 
rians put  to  death.  Since  then  it  has  been  apparent 
that  the  Chinese  government  has  a most  difficult  posi- 
tion in  which  to  maintain  itself  between  the  ignorant 
and  fanatical  hordes  of  its  own  territories,  and  the  con- 
stant encroachments  of  foreign  nations  that  have  estab- 
lished themselves  upon  its  borders.  The  irresistible 
pressure  of  foreigners  continues,  and  the  fate  of  China 
hangs  in  the  balance. 

THE  JAPANESE. 

The  first  reasonable  record  of  the  Japanese  people 
begins  with  B.  C.  600.  They  are  described  by  the  na- 
tive historians  as  being  at  that  time  in  a very  low  state 
of  civilization ; their  bodies  were  hairy,  they  ate  raw 
meat,  and  lived  in  rude  structures  that  could  hardly  be 
termed  houses.  The  first  great  name  in  their  chron- 


The  Orientals. 


163 


icles  was  Jimmu  Tenno.  He  was  a great  civilizer  and 
it  is  said  that  he  tamed  his  savage  countrymen. 

The  higher  classes  of  the  Japanese  affirm  that  they 
are  descended  from  Jimmu  Tenno,  leaving  the  infer- 
ence that  the  lower  orders  are  the  offspring  of  the 
hairy  savages  whom  he  conquered.  There  is  much  in 
the  physiognomy  of  those  people  to  bear  out  the  tra- 
dition that  there  was  some  such  amalgamation  of  two 
widely  divergent  races. 

The  capital  of  Jimmu  Tenno  was  at  Kioto.  The 
title  Mikado,  signifying  honorable  gate,  is  derived 
from  him.  Several  famous  empresses  are  found  in  the 
line  of  Jimmu.  During  the  reign  of  one  of  these 
women,  Jingo  Kogo,  Corea  was  conquered.  It  is 
recorded  that  her  son  upon  his  death  was  deified  as 
the  god  of  war.  In  the  year  A.  D.  550  one  of  the 
princes  of  Corea  came  to  Japan  with  the  books  and 
idols  of  the  Buddhists,  which  he  presented  to  the  em- 
peror. The  doctrines  of  Confucius  had  heretofore  pre- 
vailed in  their  religious  beliefs.  The  religion  of 
Buddha  made  such  headway  that,  in  the  reign  of  the 
Empress  Suiko,  A.  D.  593,  it  was  granted  full  tolera- 
tion and  had  won  the  nobles  to  its  cause. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  the  ninth  century  a script  was 
invented  for  the  writing  of  their  language,  by  the  fa- 
mous Priest  Kobo,  and  there  is  little  of  interest  in  the 
history  of  the  country  further  than  the  gradual  enlight- 
enment and  development  of  the  people  from  that  time 
until  the  year  1260,  when  the  great  Tartar  Emperor, 
Kublai  Khan  made  his  successful  invasion  of  China 
and  sent  embassadors  to  Japan.  Most  of  these  embas- 


164 


Ancient  Empires. 


sadors  were  put  to  death,  and  Kublai  Khan  determined 
upon  invasion  of  Japan  in  revenge.  This  was  begun 
fourteen  years  later,  but  the  Japanese  drove  the  Tar- 
tars back  with  great  slaughter.  In  1281  Kublai  Khan 
entered  upon  a second  invasion  of  the  island  kingdom, 
with  a great  fleet  and  army.  Fortunately  for  the  Jap- 
anese a fierce  storm  destroyed  the  Tartar’s  fleet,  and 
the  army  of  the  Shogun — or  general  in  chief — drove 
the  enemies  away.  Civil  wars  rent  the  country  during 
most  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the  factious  dis- 
turbances were  not  ended  until  the  year  1573.  Imme- 
diately following  this  period  Hideyoshi,  a leader  of  one 
of  the  factions,  being  opposed  to  the  Buddhist  religion, 
encouraged  and  strengthened  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
who  had  appeared  among  them,  and  on  his  overthrow 
the  missionaries  were  expelled  from  the  empire,  many 
of  them  being  treated  with  barbaric  cruelty.  This 
leader  aspired  to  conquer  China.  One  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  men,  in  1592,  invaded  the  celestial  em- 
pire, under  General  Kato  Kiyonasa;  but  at  this  junc- 
ture Hideyoshi  died,  and  the  expedition  was  aban- 
doned. One  of  his  warriors,  Iyeyasu,  disputed  with 
the  son  of  Hideyoshi  for  the  leadership  and  was  suc- 
cessful. The  shogunate  of  Tokugawa  was  thus 
founded,  and  its  princes  held  power  in  Japan  from 
1603  until  1867.  Yedo  was  made  capital  of  Japan  by 
Iyeyasu,  and  he  is  justly  regarded  as  the  most  illus- 
trious prince  in  Japanese  history. 

During  the  time  when  the  Jesuit  missionaries  had 
obtained  such  a foothold  in  Japan,  Portuguese  sailors 
had  established  a. profitable  commerce  with  the  people. 


The  Orientals. 


165 


But  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  Jesuits  were 
endeavoring  to  advance  their  interests  by  uniting  with 
the  enemies  of  the  Buddhists,  the  fudatory  nobles  insti- 
gated at  Nagasaki  in  the  year  1622  the  terrible  massa- 
cre, which  drove  the  Christians  from  the  island.  A 
decree  was  then  issued  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Portu- 
guese merchants,  and  the  trade  that  had  been  enjoyed 
by  them  was  given  to  the  Dutch,  whose  enmity  to  the 
Catholics  made  them  acceptable  to  the  Japanese.  In 
1640  the  Christian  natives  revolted  in  the  island  of 
Amakusa,  invaded  Japan  and  captured  the  castle  of 
Shimabara,  which  they  held  for  a considerable  time 
against  the  army  of  the  Shogun.  The  Japanese  bor- 
rowed several  cannon  from  the  Dutch,  and  with 
them  reduced  the  castle,  after  which  ensued  a massacre 
of  more  than  thirty  thousand  of  the  invaders.  The 
Dutch  thus  obtained  such  favor  with  the  Japanese  that 
for  more  than  two  centuries  they  held  a complete 
monopoly  of  the  foreign  trade  with  Japan.  The  United 
States  succeeded  in  breaking  this  exclusiveness  and 
monopoly  in  the  year  1854,  through  the  efforts  of  Com- 
modore Perry.  An  advantageous  treaty  was  ratified 
and  cordial  relations  established  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. England  and  Russia  followed  the  example  thus 
set,  and  the  harbors  of  the  islands  were  rapidly  opened 
to  foreign  commerce. 

In  1871  the  first  remarkable  divergence  from  ancient 
customs  was  made  by  the  emperor.  He  issued  a de- 
cree removing  all  the  social  disabilities  of  his  people, 
and  admitting  them  indiscriminately  to  full  citizenship. 
Since  that  time  the  rise  of  Japan  in  the  arts  of  civiliza- 


160 


Ancient  Empires. 


tion  has  been  one  of  the  most  remarkable  events  in  his- 
tory. At  a bound  the  people  and  government  reached 
a position  which  it  had  taken  ages  of  strife  and  blood 
for  the  western  people  to  achieve.  In  August,  1894, 
the  rivalry  of  long  standing  between  China  and  Japan 
for  supremacy  in  Corea  came  to  a head  through  the 
formal  declaration  of  war.  The  Japanese  attacked 
Ping-yang,  on  Sunday,  September  16,  and  killed  or 
captured  seven  thousand  Chinese.  Two  days  later  a 
naval  battle  was  fought  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu, 
lasting  five  hours,  in  which  the  Japanese  sank  four  of 
the  Chinese  vessels,  and  seriously  damaged  the  others. 
November  21,  a Japanese  army  under  Marshal  Oyama, 
captured  Port  Arthur  and  a deplorable  massacre  of 
Chinese  soldiers  followed  after  the  surrender. 

The  Japanese  army  now  advanced  into  Manchuria. 
The  Yalu  river  was  crossed  in  October,  when  the  army 
separated  into  two  divisions  of  twelve  thousand  five 
hundred  men  each.  The  right  wing  went  north  to 
the  Fen-Shai-Ling  Pass,  the  left  wing  went  west  in 
order  to  open  communications  with  the  army  of 
twenty-two  thousand  men  under  Marshal  Oyama, 
which  was  being  sent  by  sea  to  Pekin.  The  Chinese 
were  constantly  defeated,  and  the  Japanese  army,  after 
severe  fighting,  captured  Kaiphing,  in  December.  In 
February,  the  Japanese  seized  Wei-Hai-Wei.  The 
Chinese  fleet  in  the  harbor  continued  to  fight  with  the 
Japanese  fleet  several  days,  but  on  the  16th  surren- 
dered. The  continual  disasters  of  the  Chinese  forces 
shows  that  they  were  not  equipped  to  contest  with  their 
more  warlike  neighbors  and  negotiations  were  entered 


The  Orientals. 


167 


into  for  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  The  terms  of  peace 
were  signed  April  17,  Corea  was  given  its  inde- 
pendence, and  a substantial  indemnity  in  money  and 
territory  agreed  supon.  Unfortunately  for  Japan, 
Russia,  Germany  and  France  objected  to  the  ceding  of 
the  Liao  Tung  peninsula.  In  compensation  for  this 
loss  of  territory,  Japan  received  an  additional  indem- 
nity of  thirty  million  taels.  Following  the  conclusion 
of  this  successful  war,  the  progress  of  Japan  has  con- 
tinued, so  that  it  has  won  the  unequivocal  respect  of  all 
nations. 


GREECE. 

The  Heroic  Age. 

The  heroic  age  of  the  Greeks  covers  the  period  from 
the  first  appearance  of  the  Hellenes  in  Thessaly  to 
their  return  from  the  expedition  against  Troy.  The 
only  source  of  our  information  concerning  the  early 
Greeks  comes  from  their  numerous  marvelous  legends 
of  wars  and  heroic  achievements,  which  bear  but  little 
internal  evidence  of  historical  authenticity.  These 
stories  would  be  of  little  importance  to  the  student  of 
history  were  it  not  for  the  light  which  they  throw  upon 
Grecian  mythology.  The  chief  among  these  legends  are 
those  which  recount  the  labors  of  Hercules,  the  ex- 
ploits of  Theseus,  the  events  of  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
tion, the  wars  of  the  Seven  Captains,  and  the  struggles 
of  their  survivors  in  which  Thebes  was  plundered  by 
the  Greeks.  Hercules  was  the  most  celebrated  hero 
of  the  Heroic  Age.  He  is  reported  to  have  been  the 
son  of  the  God  Jupiter  and  Alomena.  When  he  was  an 
infant,  Juno,  in  jealousy,  sent  two  serpents  to  devour 
him.  His  divine  power  was  then  first  made  manifest. 
The  child  seized  both  the  serpents  in  his  hands  and 
squeezed  them  to  death.  The  jealousy  of  Juno  was  not 
yet  rebuked  and,  by  means  of  artifice,  she  caused  him 
to  make  an  oath  to  Jupiter  through  which  he  became 
subservient  for  twelve  years  to  the  will  of  his  enemy 
Eurystheus.  In  order  to  break  the  divine  power  of 
Hercules,  Eurystheus  commanded  him  to  achieve  a 

(168) 


Greece. 


169 


number  of  seemingly  impossible  enterprises,  which  are 
generally  known  as  the  Twelve  Labors  of  Hercules. 
Through  the  kindness  and  good  will  of  the  Gods,  he 
was  amply  equipped  for  his  undertakings.  Mercury 
gave  him  an  irresistible  sword,  Vulcan  provided  a 
golden  breastplate,  Apollo  gave  him  an  extraordinary 
bow,  Neptune  provided  remarkable  horses,  Minerva 
gave  him  a robe,  and  he,  himself,  cut  a club  from  the 
Nemean  wood.  The  following  is  an  enumeration  of 
the  Twelve  Labors : 

ist.  He  strangled  the  Nemean  lion,  which  ravaged 
the  country  near  Mycenae,  and  ever  after  clothed  him- 
self with  its  skin.  2d.  He  destroyed  the  Lernean  hydra, 
a water-serpent,  which  had  nine  heads,  eight  of  them 
mortal,  and  one  immortal.  3d.  He  brought  into  the 
presence  of  Eurystheus  a stag,  famous  for  its  incred- 
ible swiftness  and  golden  horns.  4th.  He  brought  to 
Mycenae  the  wild  boar  of  Erymanthus,  and  during  this 
expedition  slew  two  of  the  Centaurs,  monsters  who 
were  half  men  and  half  horses.  5th.  He  cleansed  the 
Augean  stables  in  one  day,  by  changing  the  courses  of 
the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Peneus.  6th.  He  destroyed  the 
carniverous  birds  which  ravaged  the  country  near  the 
Lake  Stymphalus  in  Arcadia.  7th.  He  brought  alive 
into  Peloponnesus  a prodigious  wild  bull  which  rav- 
aged the  island  of  Crete.  8th.  He  brought  from 
Thrace  the  mares  of  Diomede,  which  fed  on  human 
flesh.  9th.  He  obtained  the  famous  girdle  of  Hippol- 
yta,  queen  of  the  Amazons.  10th.  He  killed,  in  an 
island  of  the  Atlantic,  the  monster  Geryon,  who  had 
the  bodies  of  three  men  united,  and  brought  away  his 


170 


Ancient  Empires. 


purple  oxen.  nth.  He  obtained  from  the  garden  of  the 
Hesperides  the  golden  apples,  and  slew  the  dragon 
which  guarded  them.  12th.  He  went  down  to  the 
lower  regions,  and  brought  upon  earth  the  three- 
headed  dog  Cerberus. 

The  Argonautic  Expedition  is  said,  in  the  popular 
legend,  to  have  been  undertaken  by  Jason  and  fifty- 
four  of  the  most  renowned  heroes  of  Greece,  among 
whom  were  Theseus  and  Hercules,  for  the  recovery 
of  a golden  fleece  which  had  been  deposited  in  the 
capital  of  Colchis,  a province  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering 
on  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Euxine.  The  adven- 
turers sailed  from  Iolcos  in  the  ship  Argo,  and  during 
the  voyage  met  with  many  adventures.  Having  ar- 
rived at  Colchis,  they  would  have  been  unsuccessful  in 
the  object  of  their  expedition  had  not  the  king’s  daugh- 
ter, Medea,  who  was  an  enchantress,  fallen  in  love  with 
Jason,  and  defeated  the  plans  of  her  father  for  his  de- 
struction. After  a long  return  voyage,  filled  with 
marvelous  adventures,  most  of  the  Argonauts  reached 
Greece  in  safety,  where  Hercules,  in  honor  of  the  ex- 
pedition, instituted  the  Olympic  games. 

Some  have  supposed  this  to  have  been  a piratical  ex- 
pedition ; others,  that  it  was  undertaken  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discovery,  or  to  secure  some  commercial  estab- 
lishment on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  while  others  have 
regarded  the  legend  as  wholly  fabulous. 

The  Athenian  Theseus,  according  to  the  Greek  leg- 
end, was  the  chief  hero  of  Attica.  He  was  the  son 
of  Argus,  king  of  Athens,  and  of  Aethra,  daughter  of 
Pittheus,  king  of  Troezen.  When  he  reached  his  ma- 
turity, he  set  out  to  visit  his  father  at  Athens.  On  the 


Greece. 


171 


way  he  met  with  many  wonderful  adventures.  He  cap- 
tured the  Marathonian  bull  and  went  with  the  youths 
and  maidens  who  were  sent  as  the  annual  tribute  to 
Minos.  There  he  slew  the  Minotaur,  with  the  help  of 
Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos,  who  fell  in  love  with  him. 
She  made  him  a present  of  an  irresistible  sword  and 
gave  him  the  clue  of  thread  by  which  he  was  enabled 
to  escape  from  the  labyrinth.  Ariadne  went  with  him 
to  the  island  of  Naxos,  where  they  separated.  He  then 
fought  single-handed  a battle  with  the  Amazons,  who 
invaded  Attica.  He  was  one  of  the  Argonauts  and 
took  part  in  the  Caledonian  hunt.  He  cut  off  the  head 
of  Medusa,  and  performed  such  other  marvelous  ex* 
ploits  as  make  him  next  to  Hercules,  the  chief  hero 
of  Ancient  Greece. 

The  seven  captains  of  the  Theban  and  Argolic  war 
were  the  seven  sons  of  the  seven  Argive  chiefs,  who  un- 
successfully attacked  Thebes.  Ten  years  later  their  sons 
and  survivors,  known  as  the  Epigoni,  again  attacked 
the  Thebans.  They  were  successful,  Thebes  was  de- 
stroyed, and  their  fathers  avenged.  These  two  wars 
are  supposed  to  have  occurred  shortly  before  the  Tro- 
jan war. 

THE  TROJAN  WAR. 

The  siege  of  Troy  is  supposed  to  have  been  under- 
taken about  the  year  B.  C.  1173  by  the  confederated 
princes  of  Greece.  Troy  is  famous  in  Greek  legends 
as  the  capital  of  Priam  and  as  the  object  of  the  remark- 
able siege  under  the  Greek,  Agamemnon,  King  of 
Mycenae.  The  events  of  this  siege  furnished  for 
Homer,  the  Greek  epic  poem  known  as  “The  Iliad,” 
and  its  companion  poem,  “The  Odyssey.” 


172 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  siege  of  Troy  was  undertaken  to  redress  the 
injury  done  to  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  by  the  abduc- 
tion of  his  wife,  Helen.  The  goddess  Aphrodite  had 
given  her  to  the  Trojan,  Paris,  as  a reward  for  his 
favorable  decision  in  the  contest  of  beauty  between 
her  and  the  goddesses,  Athene  and  Hera.  Paris  was 
the  second  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  and  Hecuba. 
Before  his  birth,  Hecuba,  his  mother,  dreamed  that  her 
child  would  be  a firebrand,  which  would  cause  a great 
conflagration  in  their  city.  The  dream  was  interpreted 
as  a prophesy  that  her  son  would  cause  the  destruction 
of  Troy.  Accordingly,  Paris,  at  his  birth,  was  exposed 
on  Mount  Ida,  but  was  miraculously  saved,  and  finally 
restored  to  his  father’s  household.  At  his  marriage 
to  Oenome,  daughter  of  the  river-god  Cebron,  oc- 
curred the  quarrel  among  the  goddesses  as  to  which 
was  the  most  beautiful.  Paris,  being  the  judge, 
awarded  his  decision  to  Aphrodite,  who  rewarded  him 
by  assisting  him  to  seize  and  carry  away  to  Troy, 
Queen  Helen,  the  most  famous  beauty  of  Sparta.  The 
outraged  Greeks  at  once  prepared  to  recapture  her, 
and  so  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Troy. 

According  to  the  Grecian  legends,  Helen  was  the 
most  beautiful  woman  of  her  age.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Tyndarides,  king  of  Lacedaemon,  and  was  sought 
in  marriage  by  all  the  princes  of  Greece.  Tyndarides, 
desiring  not  to  offend  any  of  these  princes,  decided  on 
the  advice  of  Ulysses,  to  bind  all  the  suitors  by  oath 
that  they  would  approve  of  the  uninfluenced  choice  of 
Helen,  and  would  unite  to  defend  her  person  and  char- 
acter from  the  attacks  of  any  enemy  that  might  there- 


Greece. 


173 


after  arise.  Helen  chose  Menelaus,  brother  of  Aga- 
memnon, and  king  of  Sparta. 

The  siege  of  Troy  lasted  ten  years,  when  the  city 
was  taken  and  destroyed,  B.  C.  1163.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants  were  slain ; some  were  taken  prisoners,  and 
a few  saved  their  lives  by  becoming  exiles  in  distant 
lands.  From  the  conflicting  accounts  of  both  legends 
and  historians,  it  is  impossible  to  state  whether  the 
city  was  taken  by  treason,  stratagem  or  storm. 

A series  of  extensive  explorations  on  the  alleged  site 
of  ancient  Troy  have  been  conducted  by  Dr.  Schlie- 
mann,  a noted  German  archaeologist.  The  foundations 
of  a city  has  been  laid  bare,  which  was  evidently  de- 
stroyed about  1,500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
ruins  lie  at  an  average  depth  of  thirty  feet  below  the 
surface  and  bear  marks  of  a severe  conflagration.  Al- 
though it  has  not  been  conclusivelv  proved  that  these 
ruins  belong  to  the  Troy  of  Homer,  yet  the  discoveries 
seem  to  substantiate,  to  a considerable  degree,  the  story 
of  his  great  epic. 

The  ancient  Grecians  were  known  as  Hellenes,  and 
the  country  was  called  Hellas.  The  word  “Greek”  was 
not  used  before  the  time  of  Aristotle,  and  was  given  to 
them  by  the  Romans.  The  first  acquaintance  that  the 
Romans  had  with  their  neighbors  came  through  a 
near  tribe  called  Graeci,  and  that  name  was  accordingly 
given  to  the  whole  country.  A small  spot  in  Thessaly 
was  first  called  Hellas,  but  later  on,  wherever  Greeks 
settled  in  the  Mediterranean  peninsula,  the  territory 
was  called  Hellas. 

The  Hellenic  migrations  probably  came  from 


174 


Ancient  Empires. 


Phrygia.  The  name  Hellenes  is  said  to  have  come 
from  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha.  Deucalion 
was  the  king  of  Phthia  in  Thessaly,  who  was  saved, 
with  his  wife,  from  the  deluge  sent  by  Zeus.  These 
two  were  the  only  surviving  persons  in  the  world,  and 
were  saved  by  placing  themselves  in  a wooden  chest, 
which  Deucalion  had  built  on  the  advice  of  his  father, 
Prometheus.  They  landed  on  Mt.  Parnassus,,  after 
floating  nine  days.  In  order  to  renew  the  human  race, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  flood,  they  were  com- 
manded to  veil  their  faces  and  throw  behind  them  the 
bones  of  their  mother,  but  misunderstanding  the  com- 
mand, they  threw  stones.  Those  thrown  by  Deucalion 
became  men,  and  those  thrown  by  his  wife,  Pyrrha,  be- 
came women.  With  these  people  Deucalion  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Locris. 

From  Hellen,  the  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha,  de- 
scended the  Dorians,  Aeolians,  Ionians  and  Achseans. 

Modern  investigation  has  shown  conclusively  that 
the  Greeks  are  a branch  of  the  great  Indo-European 
race,  coming  in  successive  migrations  from  Asia 
Minor. 

Argos  was  the  first  city  to  attain  political  importance 
at  the  close  of  the  Heroic  Age.  For  several  centuries 
it  was  the  leading  power  in  the  Peloponnesus.  In  the 
course  of  time,  however,  it  was  compelled  to  yield  its 
supremacy  to  the  growing  cities  of  Athens  and  Sparta. 

REPUBLIC  OF  SPARTA. 

Sparta  was  the  chief  city  and  capital  of  Laconia,  a 
small  territory  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  Pel- 
oponnesus. After  the  return  of  the  descendants  of 


Greece. 


175 


Hercules,  who  were  known  as  the  Heraclidae,  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  country  was  administered  by  the  two 
sons  of  Aristodemus.  The  double  administration  of 
this  monarchy  was  transmitted  to  the  descendants  of 
each  of  these  sons  for  a period  of  eight  hundred  and 
eighty  years.  This  joint  union  gave  cause  for  radical 
dissensions,  which  ultimately  became  anarchy,  and  the 
want  of  a regular  system  of  laws  could  no  longer  be 
disregarded.  In  this  state  of  affairs,  the  rulers  turned 
to  Lvcurgus,  brother  of  one  of  the  Spartan  kings,  and 
a man  distinguished  not  alone  for  his  great  abilities 
but  for  his  stern  and  unyielding  integrity.  To  him  was 
given  the  important  duty  of  framing  a new  constitution 
for  his  country.  The  arduous  task  was  at  last  com- 
pleted. It  bears  throughout  the  stamp  of  original 
genius,  and  is  a masterpiece  of  practical  wisdom 
adapted  to  the  existing  needs  of  his  state.  Neverthe- 
less, it  may  be  almost  wholly  condemned  in  the  name 
of  justice  and  humanity. 

The  Spartan  community  for  which  he  made  these 
laws  was  in  substance  democratic,  and  yet  in  its  gov- 
erning forces  it  was  essentially  aristocratic.  That  the 
great  need  of  such  laws  was  fully  appreciated  by  the 
entire  state  may  be  accepted  from  the  fact  that  he  in- 
duced his  fellow-citizens  to  renounce  all  property  from 
which  any  important  inequality  might  arise,  and  to 
submit  to  the  most  exacting  and  rigorous  supervision 
of  their  personal  affairs.  Everything  movable  ceased 
to  be  private  property,  and  the  land  was  measured  out 
in  so  many  parts  that  every  Spartan  and  Laconian  had 
sufficient  for  his  family’s  support.  In  order  to  prevent 


176 


Ancient  Empires. 


the  industrious  from  becoming  richer  than  the  indo- 
lent, the  qualified  occupant  of  the  land  was  not  per- 
mitted to  cultivate  it.  Such  work  was  permitted  alone 
to  the  Helots,  or  slaves.  That  the  idea  of  wealth 
might  be  banished  from  the  land,  gold  and  silver  were 
proscribed  and  the  use  of  iron  as  money  was  substi- 
tuted. 

In  order  to  provide  the  state  with  citizens  full  of 
self-denial  and  burning  with  active  patriotism,  their 
education  by  the  state  commenced  with  birth  and  con- 
tinued through  the  whole  of  life.  The  Spartan  girls 
were  put  through  the  severest  physical  exercise  with  the 
men,  which  however  fatal  to  modesty,  produced  the 
strongest  possible  race  of  women.  In  order  to  secure 
to  the  state  the  most  vigorous  children,  those  that  were 
born  feeble  were  doomed  to  die.  The  tribunal  ap- 
pointed to  judge  in  this  matter  rendered  a decision  a 
few  days  after  the  child’s  birth,  and  if  it  was  found 
strong  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  state,  it 
was  left  with  the  mother  for  four  or  five  years,  after 
which  it  became  the  property  of  the  state,  and  was 
henceforth  subjected  to  the  rigid  discipline  that  made 
the  Spartans  the  most  courageous  heroes  of  ancient 
times. 

All  the  citizens,  not  excepting  the  kings,  were  re- 
quired to  take  their  meals  at  the  public  tables.  A kind 
of  black  broth  was  the  chief  article  of  food,  and  every 
form  of  luxury  and  excess  was  excluded.  When  the 
people  were  seated  at  these  public  meals,  the  oldest 
man  present  was  accustomed  to  arise,  and,  pointing  to 
the  door  said,  “No  word  spoken  here  goes  out  there.” 


Greece. 


1-77 


Ihis  regulation  produced  mutual  confidence  and  al- 
lowed them  to  speak  to  one  another  in  unrestrained 
conversation.  They  were  accustomed  to  speak  in  brief 
sentences  and  from  that  custom  has  come  the  word 
laconic , being  derived  from  Laconia,  one  of  the  names 
of  their  country. 

To  such  extreme  was  their  training  carried  that  a 
liar  was  punished  not  for  the  lie,  but  for  the  fault  of 
being  discovered.  A successful  thief  might  be  re- 
warded for  his  cleverness,  but  he  was  liable  to  punish- 
ment and  disgrace  for  discovery  in  the  act.  Plutarch 
tells  the  story  of  a boy  who  had  stolen  a fox  and  con- 
cealed it  under  his  cloak.  Rather  than  to  suffer  the 
disgrace  of  being  discovered,  the  boy  allowed  the  fox 
to  tear  an  opening  into  his  bowels. 

The  masculine  energy  and  severity  instilled  into  the 
character  of  the  women  were  such  as  to  make  military 
glory  their  chief  admiration.  Mothers  rejoiced  when 
there  was  an  opportunity  for  their  sons  to  go  into  bat- 
tle, and  they  considered  themselves  ennobled  if  one 
of  their  sons  fell  fighting  for  his  country.  The  parting 
injunction  of  a Spartan  mother  to  husband  or  son  was, 
“Return  with  your  shield  or  upon  it.” 

For  five  hundred  years  the  strange  institutions  of 
Lycurgus  continued  in  full  force.  During  this  period 
the  other  cities  of  Greece  were  torn  with  domestic  dis- 
sensions, but  the  government  of  Sparta  was  solid  and 
invincible.  However,  during  the  reign  of  Lysander  the 
opportunity  and  ambition  for  conquest  arose  and  the 
country  was  filled  with  wealth  secured  from  the  spoils 
of  war.  The  severe  manners  and  rigid  virtues  of  the 


178 


Ancient  Empires. 


citizens  relaxed;  their  laws  and  institutions  were 
changed,  and  a period  of  avarice  and  luxury  prevailed. 
In  the  midst  of  this,  Sparta,  with  the  other  Grecian 
States,  sank  under  the  dominion  of  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon. 

THE  MESSENIAN  WARS. 

The  Spartans,  under  the  severe  laws  of  Lycurgus, 
and  the  ambitions  of  later  kings,  became  a terror  to 
their  neighbors.  The  Messenians  resisted  their  en- 
croachments and  several  bloody  wars  resulted.  The 
first  lasted  twenty  years,  from  B.  C.  743  to  723.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  resources  and  energy  of  the  Spartans 
seemed  exhaustless,  but  the  Messenians,  though  brave 
and  warlike,  became  more  and  more  weakened  until  at 
last  they  were  compelled  to  conclude  a disadvantageous 
peace.  The  submission,  being  forced  upon  them,  could 
not  be  considered  permanent,  and  the  unhappy  people, 
goaded  to  desperation  by  the  oppression  of  their  con- 
querors, took  up  arms  again  in  the  hope  of  being  able 
to  free  themselves  from  the  galling  yoke.  This  second 
war  was  under  the  leadership  of  Aristomenes,  a prince 
of  the  most  generous  and  noble  feelings,  exalted  pa- 
triotism, and  intrepid  character.  This  time,  the  Argives 
and  Arcadians,  alarmed  at  the  growing  ascendency  of 
Sparta,  joined  the  Messenians,  and  three  times  in  suc- 
cession defeated  the  encroaching  Lacedaemonians.  At 
this  the  Lacedaemonians,  or  Spartans,  began  to  lose 
courage  and  applied  to  the  Oracle  for  advice.  The 
Oracle  replied  that  they  could  not  hope  to  win  against 
the  Messenians  and  their  allies  unless  a leader  was  ob- 


Greece. 


179 


tained  from  Athens.  Accordingly  they  sent  to  Athens 
asking  for  a suitable  leader.  The  Athenians,  not  wish- 
ing to  aid  the  Spartans,  sent  the  elegiac  poet  Tyrtaeus, 
then  a lame  schoolmaster  without  reputation.  Tyrtaeus 
however,  proved  an  inspired  leader.  He  wrote  patriotic 
songs,  which  thrilled  the  Spartans  to  their  highest  ef- 
forts, the  result  being  that  the  tide  of  war  was  turned, 
the  Spartans  overcame  their  enemies,  and  defeated 
them  with  irreparable  losses.  Aristomenes,  seeing 
that  he  could  not  save  his  country  from  entire  subju- 
gation by  continuing  the  struggle,  visited  foreign 
courts  and  endeavored  to  raise  enemies  elsewhere 
against  the  oppressors  of  Messenia,  but  he  died  before 
■ anything  was  accomplished,  and  the  remnant  of  the 
Messenians  were  either  reduced  to  slavery  or  trans- 
ferred to  the  island  of  Sicily,  where  they  built  a city 
called  Zancles,  afterward  famous  under  the  name  of 
Messina.  This  war  lasted  fourteen  years,  ending  B. 
C.  760.  Its  result  confirmed  the  supremacy  of  Sparta 
in  southern  Greece. 

ATHENS. 

The  Spartans,  otherwise  known  as  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians and  Laconians,  were  at  complete  variance  in 
their  stern  and  unyielding  character  with  the  lively, 
polite  and  humane  nature  of  the  Athenians.  Lacedae- 
mon had  long  found  a bitter  rival  in  Athens.  After 
the  death  of  Codrus,  B.  C.  1068,  the  Athenians  abol- 
ished royalty  and  appointed  magistrates  under  the 
name  of  archons,  to  govern  them  in  the  place  of  kings. 
At  first  the  authority  of  these  rulers  was  for  life,  but 


180 


Ancient  Empires. 


later  their  term  of  office  was  reduced  to  ten  years,  and 
then  to  one.  The  restless  and  inconstant  spirit  of  the 
Athenians  could  not  be  controlled  by  the  limited  power 
- of  the  magistrates ; therefore,  disturbances  and  fac- 
tions constantly  agitated  and  weakened  the  state.  To 
provide  against  this  they  had  recourse  to  new  legisla- 
tion in  a manner  similar  to  the  Spartans,  when  they 
invested  Lycurgus  with  the  duty  of  preparing  a new 
constitution. 

Draco  was  at  that  time,  B.  C.  624,  the  most  re- 
nowned in  Greece,  for  his  wisdom  and  integrity.  Upon 
him  devolved  the  task  of  preparing  the  required  laws. 
This  he  did,  and  such  was  their  severity,  that  tradition 
says  they  were  written  in  blood.  According  to  Draco 
the  virtue  of  the  state  could  only  be  secured  by  making 
death  the  penalty  for  the  least  crimes,  and  since  no 
heavier  penalty  could  be  devised  for  greater  offences, 
the  one  sweeping  penalty  of  death  covered  all.  Such 
laws  could  not  be  put  into  execution  in  Athens.  They 
were  tried  for  awhile,  then  fell  into  disuse  and  the  dis- 
orders of  the  state  were  as  great  as  ever.  To  remedy 
the  distressful  state  of  the  government,  the  Athenians 
next  had  recourse  to  the  genius  of  Solon,  a descendant 
of  Codrus.  His  great  talents  had  won  for  him  the 
respect  and  affection  of  the  whole  people,  and  he  was 
appointed  archon  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  all 
parties.  Such  was  their  confidence  that  they  invested 
him  with  full  authority  and  made  him  their  common 
arbiter  and  legislator.  He  at  once  annulled  all  the 
statutes  of  Draco,  except  that  which  inflicted  capital 
punishment  for  the  crime  of  murder.  Strange  to  say 


Greece. 


181 


the  Athenians  at  this  time  held  murder  in  such  horror 
that  they  would  not  pardon  anything  which  appeared 
to  have  the  remotest  tendency  to  that  crime.  As  an 
illustration  of  this  it  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  their 
most  famous  tribunal  called  the  Areopagus,  con- 
demned to  death  a young  boy  who  had  been  seen 
cruelly  picking  out  the  eyes  of  birds.  The  murderous 
disposition  thus  discovered  in  him,  made  the  tribunal 
feel  that  he  would  afterwards  become  a scourge  to 
society,  and  that  the  people  would  be  best  protected'by 
his  death.  No  law  was  enacted  against  the  enormous 
guilt  of  parricide  because  such  a crime  had  never  been 
known  in  Athens,  and  S(3lon  considered  it  so  nearly  im- 
possible that  no  mention  was  made  of  it  in  his  code.  He 
did  not  endeavor  to  make  the  poorer  classes  independ- 
ent as  Lycurgus  had  done,  by  dividing  the  land  among 
them,  but  he  took  efficient  measures  to  relieve  them  of 
their  debts  to  the  wealthier  classes. 

In  Sparta  the  exclusive  occupation  of  both  sexes 
had  consisted  in  a bodily  and  military  exercise,  which 
naturally  led  to  a life  of  warfare ; but  Solon  sought  to 
inspire  in  the  Athenian  youths  loftier  sentiments.  His 
chief  desire  was  to  make  them  industrious,  and  to 
create  in  them  a love  for  the  arts  of  peace.  His  efforts 
were  successful,  and  no  city  was  ever  more  distin- 
guished than  Athens  for  the  masterpieces  it  produced. 
In  the  course  of  a few  generations  the  Athenians  ex- 
ceeded all  the  people  of  antiquity  in  refinement  and 
sagacity.  Even  the  lowest  classes  of  society  acquired 
artistic  tastes,  and  it  is  related  that  a market  woman 
discovered  the  celebrated  Theophrastes  to  be  a 


182  Ancient  Empires. 

stranger  from  the  slight  accent  which  she  heard  in  his 
pronunciation. 

According  to  the  new  code,  the  Athenians  were  di- 
vided into  four  classes ; three  of  the  rich,  and  one  of 
the  poor.  The  rich  retained  exclusive  possession  of  all 
state  offices,  magistracies  and  employments.  However, 
the  poor  were  given  the  fight  to  vote  in  public  assem- 
blies. As  the  poor  were  so  numerous  this  franchise 
gave  them  great  power.  In  compliance  with  Athenian 
legislation,  none  were  admitted  to  membership  in  their 
tribunals  excepting  men  of  superior  intelligence,  wis- 
dom and  experience.  The  legislative  body  at  Athens 
thus  became  the  most  respected  and  renowned  in  the 
world.  Its  reputation  for  justice  and  sagacity  became 
so  great  that  the  Romans  themselves  frequently  re- 
ferred their  difficulties  to  the  Athenian  court.  It  may 
be  truly  said  of  this  august  senate  that  there  was  never 
any  object  of  consideration  before  them  but  to  ascer- 
tain the  truth,  and  execute  justice.  In  order  that  ex- 
ternal objects  might  not  disturb  the  attention  of  the 
judges  from  the  subject  in  hand,  their  most  important 
sessions  were  held  at  night  or  in  isolated  places.  Their 
advocates  and  orators  were  required  to  talk  directly  to 
the  point,  and  were  not  privileged  to  make  use  of  any 
exordium,  peroration  or  digression. 

Having  completed  his  laws  and  seeing  them  in  suc- 
cessful operation,  Solon  endeavored  to  devise  some 
plan  which  would  prevent  his  countrymen  from  chang- 
ing the  course  thus  set  for  tKem.  He  .caused  the  peo- 
ple to  swear  that  these  laws  should  be  unchanged  for 
one  hundred  years.  He  then  went  into  foreign  countries 


Greece. 


183 


and  traveled  for  ten  years,  visiting  the  most  renowned 
courts  of  the  great  nations.  When  he  returned  to  Ath- 
ens he  found  the  people  distracted  by  civil  feuds  and 
factions.  He  had  the  grief  to  see  rise  rapidly  to  power 
an  ambitious  demagogue  named  Pisistratus.  This  art- 
ful man  was  possessed  of  great  riches,  which  he  lav- 
ishly distributed  among  the  poor,  thus  securing  their 
friendship  and  votes.  Under  the  veil  of  moderation 
and  beneficence,  the  unprincipled  Athenian  pursued  his 
way  toward  the  overthrow  of  the  Athenian  liberties. 
His  eloquence,  affability  and  benevolence  made  the 
common  people  a unit  in  his  favor.  He  persuaded  them 
that  his  popularity  had  made  him  so  odious  to  the 
nobles  and  wealthier  people  of  the  state  that  a body 
guard  was  necessary  for  his  personal  safety.  To  give 
sufficient  color  to  this  claim,  Pisistratus  inflicted  upon 
himself  a number  of  wounds,  and  while  his  body  was 
covered  with  blood  he  caused  himself  to  be  carried  to 
the  market-place  in  his  chariot.  There  he  roused  the 
indignation  of  the  citizens  by  giving  them  to  under- 
stand, in  a fiery  speech,  that  the  nobles  had  at- 
tempted to  assassinate  him  because  of  his  earnest  zeal 
for  the  good  of  the  people.  In  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  Solon  an  assembly  was  at  once  convened, 
and  forty  guards  were  voted  for  the  security  of  Pisis- 
tratus. This  crafty  usurper  in  a short  time,  under 
various  pretexts,  was  enabled  to  have  this  guard  in- 
creased from  forty  to  six  hundred.  A little  later,  with 
the  assistance  of  these  devoted  followers,  he  found  an 
excuse  to  take  possession  of  the  citadel,  and  then  made 
himself  absolute  master  of  Athens,  B.  C.  561.  Solon, 


184 


Ancient  Empires. 


finding  himself  unable  to  prevent  the  usurpation,  bent 
all  his  energies  to  make  the  new  administration  as 
beneficent  to  the  state  as  possible.  The  aim  of  Solon 
was  to  secure  the  liberty  of  the  people  rather  than  the 
irresponsible  freedom  of  the  populace.  He  considered 
the  forms  of  a pure  democracy  dangerous,  and  desired 
to  limit  them  by  a moderate  aristocracy.  In  this  re- 
gard he  was  in  perfect  accord  with  Pisistratus,  and  the 
power  which  had  been  so  illegally  acquired  was  admin- 
istered with  commendable  equity  and  mildness.  En- 
couragement was  given  to  every  form  of  art  and  in- 
dustry. The  distress  of  the  needy  and  afflicted  was 
relieved  with  prudent  liberality,  and  the  city  was  em- 
bellished with  great  judgment.  During  this  time  no 
effort  was  spared  to  promote  the  happiness  and  exalt 
the  splendor  of  Athens. 

So  much  was  done  for  the  good  of  the  people  that 
the  tyrannical  usurpation  of  Pisistratus  was  greatly 
redeemed.  Solon  did  not  long  survive,  but  died  B.  C. 
558.  According  to  his  will,  his  body  was  burned  and 
the  ashes  were  sown  in  the  island  of  Salamis,  which  in 
his  youth  he  had  won  for  Athens. 

As  soon  as  Pisistratus  was  master  of  the  city  he 
banished  Lycurgus  and  Megacles,  who  had  been  most 
active  in  opposing  him.  In  a short  time  they  succeeded 
in  arousing  such  opposition  to  Pisistratus  that  he  was 
driven  into  exile,  but  a disagreement  of  His  enemies 
resulted  in  a compact  between  Megacles  and  Pisistra- 
tus  in  which  the  usurper,  by  marrying  the  daughter  of 
Megacles,  was  permitted  to'  return  to  Athens.  The 
tyrant,  however,  treated  his  newly  acquired  wife  with 


Greece. 


185 


such  contempt  that  Megacles  again  made  common 
cause  with  Lycurgus,  and  Pisistratus  was  again  driven 
into  exile.  During  this  second  exile  he  lived  in  Euboea 
ten  years,  at  the  end  of  which  he  returned  to  Attica, 
collected  a body  of  partisans  at  Marathon,  defeated  his 
rivals  and  again  made  himself  supreme  in  Athens. 
Pisistratus  in  this  third  term  of  tyranny,  employed  a 
band  of  Thracian  mercenaries  and  through  them  was 
able  to  maintain  his  authority  without  molestation.  He 
enforced  scrupulously  the  statutes  of  Solon,  and  won 
the  applause  of  the  Fourth  Estate,  as  the  poor  were 
called,  by  throwing  open  to  them  his  magnificent  gar- 
dens. He  gave  great  encouragement  to  art  and  litera- 
ture, established  the  first  public  library  in  Greece,  and 
placed  the  world  under  obligations  to  him  by  gathering 
together  the  Homeric  poems. 

Athens  was  in  a state  of  tranquillity  and  prosperity 
for  the  thirty-three  years  during  which  it  continued  to 
be  under  the  direction  of  his  great  executive  ability. 
He  died  B.  C.  527,  and  the  government  descended  to 
his  sons,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus.  The  poets,  Ana- 
creon and  Simonides,  were  maintained  at  the  Court  of 
Hipparchus,  who  is  also  noted  as  having  placed  the 
Hermoe,  or  small  statutes  of  Hermes,  over  the  city 
and  country  as  boundary  posts,  on  them  being  placed 
the  moral  sayings  of  noted  philosophers,  to  remind  the 
people  of  their  obligations.  A private  feud  now 
brought  about  a change  in  government.  Harmodius, 
a politician  of  considerable  following,  gave  offense  to 
the  two  rulers,  and,  in  retaliation,  Hippias  publicly  in- 
sulted the  sister  of  Harmodius.  At  the  festival  of 


186 


Ancient  Empires. 


Panathensea,  Harmodius  and  a friend,  Aristogiton, 
stood  with  daggers  hid  in  the  myrtle  leaves  upon  which 
their  food  was  to  be  placed,  and  awaited  an  opportunity 
for  bloody  revenge.  While  Hippias  was  conversing 
with  one  of  their  number,  the  conspirators  rushed  upon 
the  two  kings,  and  Hipparchus  was  killed,  but  Hippias 
escaped.  Instead  of  endeavoring  to  conciliate  his  ene- 
mies, and  modify  the  public  discontent,  Hippias  en- 
tered upon  a career  of  cruelty  and  oppression,  which 
could  not  long  endure  in  Greece.  Clisthenes,  the  son 
of  Megacles,  won  the  Delphic  oracle  over  to  the  side 
of  the  people  of  Athens,  and  succeeded  in  causing  it  to 
advise  the  Spartans  to  interfere  against  Hippias.  A 
force  was  sent  over  from  Lacedaemon  and  the  tyrant 
was  driven  into  exile.  He  went  to  the  Persian  court, 
which  was  a welcome  home  for  all  the  enemies  of  Gre- 
cian liberty.  Clisthenes  at  once  became  leader  of  the 
popular  party,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Athenian 
democracy  by  changing  the  constitution  so  that  any 
above  the  class  of  extreme  poor  might  have  a share  in 
the  government.  In  order  to  provide  against  the  pos- 
sibility of  ambitious  citizens  becoming  demagogues  and 
then  despots,  as  had  been  the  case  with  Pisistratus, 
Clisthenes  introduced  ostracism.  This  plan  provided 
that  whenever  six  thousand  votes  were  cast  for  the 
banishment  of  any  man  whom  the  people  considered 
dangerous  to  the  state,  his  exile  would  be  ordered  with- 
out question  or  inquiry.  As  it  was  a difficult  matter  to 
cause  six  thousand  free  citizens  to  vote  for  the  ostra- 
cism of  another  free  citizen,  without  just  cause,  there 
was  less  abuse  than  might  be  expected  in  such  an  ex- 
traordinary system. 


Greece. 


187 


The  almost  fatal  divisions  and  quarrels  of  the  classes 
for  supremacy  continued,  until  they  were  awakened 
from  their  folly  by  finding  themselves  face  to  face  with 
the  danger  of  destruction  from  a relentless  foe,  with 
whom  almost  every  petty  state  in  Greece  had  been  in- 
triguing for  the  discomfiture  of  the  others.  From  the 
direction  of  Persia  there  came  the  overshadowing 
warning  of  such  a danger  that  every  quarrel  was 
hushed,  every  wound  was  closed,  and  all  parties  united 
to  save  themselves  from  the  king  of  Persia. 

THE  PERSIAN  WAR. 

Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  being  incensed  against  the 
Athenians  for  having  aided  the  people  of  Ionia  in  an 
attempt  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Persia,  and  for  having 
burned  and  ravaged  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  de- 
termined upon  the  subjugation  of  the  Greeks.  An  in- 
solent demand  of  submission  was  made  upon  them, 
which  Athens  and  Sparta  scornfully  refused,  and  Da- 
rius began  a hostile  movement,  both  by  sea  and  land. 

The  Persian  messengers  to  Aegina  and  Thebes  re- 
turned to  Darius  with  the  earth  and  water  required 
as  symbols  of  submission,  but  the  heralds  coming  to 
Athens  and  Sparta  were  thrown  into  wells  and  told  to 
procure  for  themselves,  the  earth  and  water  they  de- 
manded. 

Mardonius,  the  Persian  general,  was  succeeded  by 
Datis,  son  of  the  former  governor  of  Lydia,  and  assist- 
ed by  Artaphernes,  a fleet  of  five  hundred  ships  was 
collected  with  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand  men. 
Provisions  against  a repetition  of  previous  disasters 


188 


Ancient  Empires. 


were  carefully  made  and  the  fleet  soon  arrived  at  the 
islands  of  the  Aegean  Sea.  It  proceeded  first  to  Ere- 
tria,  a city  of  Euboea,  against  which  Darius  was  greatly 
incensed  because  of  the  assistance  it  had  given  to  the 
Ionians  in  their  revolt.  He  destroyed  the  city  and 
sent  the  inhabitants  to  Persia  in  chains.  Hippias,  the 
banished  king  of  Athens,  burning  with  revenge,  led  an 
army  of  Persians  toward  Attica  and  landed  on  the 
narrow  plain  of  Marathon.  The  Spartans  were  un- 
willing, because  of  their  superstitious  fears,  to  go  into 
battle  until  after  the  full  of  the  moon,  thus  leaving  the 
little  band  of  Athenians  to  oppose  the  entire  force  of 
Persians.  But  the  Athenians  had  a remarkable  mili- 
tary commander  in  Miltiades,  who  concentrated  the 
energies  of  the  republic,  and  inspired  the  people  with 
extraordinary  enthusiasm  and  ardor. 

At  the  time  that  Darius  invaded  Scythia,  Miltiades 
was  tyrant  of  Chersonesus,  and,  having  accompanied 
Darius  in  the  Scythian  expedition,  was  well  acquainted 
with  the  Persian  mode  of  warfare.  Miltiades  did  not 
await  the  approach  of  the  Persians,  but  marched  im- 
mediately onward  to  Marathon  with  his  little  band  of 
ten  thousand  men,  prepared  to  encounter  the  Per- 
sian host  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand. 
Miltiades  drew  up  his  force  on  the  narrow  plain 
where  it  was  almost  impossible  for  the  Persians 
to  use  their  cavalry  with  any  effect.  Datis,  the 
Persian  commander,  saw  the  advantage  taken  by 
the  Greeks,  but  believing  that  his  superior  force  was 
overwhelming,  he  decided  to  risk  an  engagement.  At 
the  signal  for  battle  the  Athenians  advanced  running, 


Greece. 


189 


and  engaged  the  Persians  in  a hand  to  hand  conflict. 
The  unwieldy  forces  of  Datis  were  at  once  thrown 
into  disorder  and  retreated  in  confusion  to  their  ships. 
The  victorious  Greeks  slaughtered  twelve  thousand 
Persians,  set  a large  portion  of  their  fleet  on  fire,  and 
captured  seven  of  their  best  vessels.  As  an  incident 
of  the  ardor  of  the  Athenian  soldiers  it  is  related  that 
one  of  the  men  finding  victory  secure  left  the  battle- 
field and  ran  with  the  news  to  the  city.  Exhausted  and 
covered  with  blood  he  fell  dead  at  the  feet  of  the  mag- 
istrates, after  exclaiming,  “Rejoice,  rejoice,  the  vic- 
tory is  ours.” 

The  enthusiastic  Athenians  now  agreed  to  furnish 
Miltiades  with  a fleet  of  seventy  ships  for  the  purpose 
of  punishing  those  unpatriotic  islands  which  had  fa- 
vored the  Persians.  Paros,  which  was  not  one  of  these, 
was  besieged,  but  for  some  reason  not  definitely  known 
to  history,  the  siege  was  raised  and  Miltiades  returned 
home.  Miltiades  had  maintained  secrecy  concerning 
his  attack  on  Paros  so  that  when  the  fleet  sailed  away 
its  destination  was  known  only  to  the  commander-in- 
chief. On  his  return  home  Miltiades  was  accused  of 
treason  and  fined  fifty  talents.  Being  unable  to  pay 
this  fine,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  where  he  died. 
After  his  death  the  fine  was  paid  by  public  subscription 
and  the  stigma  raised  from  his  name.  The  unhappy 
fate  of  Miltiades  is  often  cited  in  proof  of  the  fickle 
character  of  the  people,  and  is  used  as  an  argument 
against  democratic  institutions.  Without  doubt  the 
republic  of  Athens  has  much  to  answer  for  on  the 
score  of  ingratitude,  but  there  is  much  to  say  in  favor 


190 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  the  Athenians  in  their  conduct  toward  Miltiades. 
When  he  asked  the  government  to  furnish  him  a fleet 
without  orders  as  to  its  destination,  he  gave  the  assur- 
ance that  his  enterprise  was  honorable  and  would 
prove  of  great  advantage  in  wealth  and  glory  to  his 
country.  Much  treasure  was  spent,  and  many  lives 
were  lost  apparently  through  the  incapacity  or  treach- 
ery of  Miltiades.  Whatever  the  cause  of  the  failure, 
the  expedition  returned  home  in  disaster  and  disgrace, 
and  the  character  and  purposes  of  Miltiades  became  at 
once  objects  of  the  closest  scrutiny.  It  was  found  that 
private  resentment  against  a prominent  citizen  on  the 
island  of  Paros,  was  the  motive  of  the  expedition.  All 
in  all,  the  expedition  was  found  to  be  unprincipled  and 
therefore  dishonorable  to  the  Athenian  people.  As  it 
was  in  a time  of  peace  and  the  Parians  had  not  taken 
part  with  the  enemies  of  Athens,  popular  resentment 
against  Miltiades  arose  all  the  higher  because  of  the 
extraordinary  homage  they  had  paid  to  him  as  the  hero 
of  Marathon.  After  deliberate  investigation  and  judg- 
ment the  recent  favorite  was  impeached  as  worthy  of 
death.  In  this  view  the  sterling  integrity  of  the 
Athenians  is  made  all  the  more  prominent  because  jus- 
tice demanded  that  gratitude  for  the  previous  services 
of  Miltiades  should  not  exempt  him  from  just  punish- 
ment. The  fine  imposed  was  not  unreasonably  heavy, 
but  he  refused  to  pay  it  and  so  was  sent  to  prison.  The 
wound  from  which  he  died  while  there  was  not  re- 
ceived in  battle,  but  came  from  a fall  which  had  oc- 
curred some  time  before.  Considering  these  circum- 
stances there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  case  of  Mil- 


Greece. 


191 


tiades  does  not  show  that  republics  are  fickle,  but  rather 
illustrates  the  inflexible  sternness  of  Athenian  justice. 

Notwithstanding  his  defeats,  Darius  was  as  deter- 
mined as  ever  to  subjugate  Greece.  He  spent  the  fol- 
lowing three  years  in  preparing  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful armaments  that  was  ever  sent  forth  on  any  expedi- 
tion of  invasion.  He  intended  to  lead  the  Persian  forces 
himself,  but  just  before  they  were  ready  to  set  forth  he 
died  and  his  son  Xerxes  ascended  the  throne  and  took 
command.  At  the  death  of  Darius,  the  Egyptians  re- 
volted. Xerxes  threw  part  of  his  army  of  invasion 
into  Egypt,  quickly  crushed  the  revolt,  and  then  went 
on  to  Greece.  However,  realizing  the  desperate  cour- 
age of  the  people  he  was  intending  to  subjugate,  he 
spent  four  years  in  preparation  for  what  was  intended 
to  be  an  irresistible  conquest.  He  marched  towards  the 
Hellespont  with  all  his  force,  and  passed  the  winter  at 
Sardis,  from  which  place  he  sent  heralds  demanding 
submission  from  all  the  Grecian  states,  excepting  La- 
cedaemon and  Athens.  The  Thessalians  and  some  other 
minor  provinces  submitted.  When  spring  came  the 
Persian  army,  estimated  by  some  to  have  consisted  all 
told  of  nearly  five  million  persons,  including  women, 
children,  slaves  and  general  camp  followers,  moved  on 
towards  Greece. 

A bridge  of  boats  was  made  across  the  Hellespont 
for  the  passage  of  this  enormous  host,  but  the  rapidity 
of  the  current  and  the  width  of  the  strait  not  being 
sufficiently  estimated,  the  undertaking  proved  a fail- 
ure. A storm  destroyed  the  bridge,  and  Xerxes  in  a 
fit  of  passion  ordered  the  workmen  who  had  con- 


11)2 


Ancient  Empires. 


structed  it  to  be  put  to  death.  The  rebellious  sea  was 
then  scourged  with  three  hundred  lashes.  A second  at- 
tempt was  more  successful,  and  a steady  stream  of  peo- 
ple poured  across  the  bridge  for  about  seven  days  and 
nights.  At  Dor,  Xerxes  reviewed  his  army.  He 
found  his  available  infantry  to  be  one  million  seven 
hundred  thousand ; his  cavalry  eighty  thousand,  and 
his  fleet  of  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  seven  ves- 
sels each  equipped  with  three  hundred  fighting  men.  A 
contingent  of  Egyptian  soldiers  followed  in  twenty 
vessels,  each  carrying  two  hundred  men.  Besides 
these  there  were  small  galleys,  transports,  and  other 
auxiliary  vessels  carrying  provisions  amounting  in  all 
to  about  three  thousand  ships.  Such  a formidable  army 
seemed  invincible,  and  the  Greeks  were  in  great  terror. 
The  principal  anger  of  the  Persians  being  directed 
against  Athens  and  the  Lacedsemons,  these  two  states 
assumed  the  lead  in  all  the  efforts  for  defense.  Am- 
bassadors were  sent  to  Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  to 
Argos  and  to  the  Isles  of  Corcyra  and  Crete.  But  no- 
where could  help  be  found.  The  Athenians  then  took 
recourse  to  their  superstitions  and  consulted  the  Oracle 
of  Delphi.  The  usual  equivocal  answer  was  returned 
that  when  all  else  was  destroyed  they  might  preserve 
themselves  by  their  wooden  walls. 

Themistocles  was  now  at  the  head  of  Athenian  af- 
fairs, and  he  interpreted  this  answer  to  signify  that 
their  safety  lay  in  ships.  Themistocles  was  one  of  the 
most  profound  politicians  of  ancient  times,  and,  fully 
foreseeing  the  great  invasion  that  was  now  under  way, 
he  had  begun  immediately  after  the  battle  of  Marathon 


Greece. 


193 


to  increase  the  maritime  power  of  Athens.  The  whole 
resources  of  the  government  and  people  were  thence- 
forth employed  in  building  galleys.  Two  hundred  of 
these  vessels  were  ready  to  meet  the  Persian  fleet. 
Themistocles  was  given  supreme  command,  and  Eury- 
biades,  a Spartan,  was  made  commander  in  chief  over 
the  several  forces  of  the  allies.  In  the  presence  of  such 
appalling  danger  the  petty  animosity  of  the  Greek 
states  subsided,  and  Themistocles  joined  in  soliciting 
the  return  of  Aristides,  whose  banishment  he  had  as- 
sisted to  procure.  In  the  invasion  of  Darius,  Aristides 
had  been  of  great  service  to  the  state,  and  because  of 
his  spotless  integrity  of  character,  had  acquired  the 
surname  of  Just.  When  the  question  of  his  ostracism 
was  being  voted  upon  he  was  asked  by  a citizen,  who 
did  not  recognize  him,  to  write  the  name  of  Aristides 
upon  the  shell  which  he  intended  to  vote.  “Why,”  said 
the  astonished  man,  “what  evil  has  Aristides  done 
you?”  “None  that  I know  of,”  said  the  citizen,  “but  I 
am  tired  of  hearing  him  called  ‘The  Just/  ” Aristides 
then  wrote  the  name  as  requested,  and  there  were  so 
many  votes  favorable  to  his  banishment,  that  he  went 
into  voluntary  exile,  but  returned  at  the  invitation  of 
his  country. 

Xerxes  marched  without  difficulty  through  Thrace, 
Macedonia  and  Thessaly.  Every  city  through  which 
he  came  prepared  for  him  splendid  entertainments,  and 
Xerxes  believed  that  he  could  march  on  with  ease  over 
the  necks  of  subservient  people.  But  at  the  Pass  of 
Thermopylae,  there  was  lying  in  wait  for  him  Leonidas, 
king  of  Sparta,  with  over  five  thousand  regular  troops. 


194 


Ancient  Empires. 


This  pass  was  a narrow  sea  between  Mt.  Aetna  and 
the  sea  leading  from  Thessaly  to  Phocis.  Its  name 
was  derived  from  two  Greek  words,  Thermae,  meaning 
warm  spring,  of  which  there  were  several  near, — and 
pylae,  gates.  This  passage  was  not  wide  enough  for 
two  chariots  to  pass  abreast,  but  the  Persian  land 
forces  were  obliged  to  pass  this  in  order  to  reach  At- 
tica. When  Xerxes  saw  that  Sparta  had  taken  pos- 
session of  this  Pass,  he  sent  them  what  was  intended  to 
be  a conciliatory  message.  “The  Persians,”  so  the  messen- 
ger said,  “are  not  at  war  with  the  Spartans,  but  with 
the  Athenians  only;  therefore,  Xerxes  desires  you  to 
lay  down  your  arms.”  “Tell  him  to  come  and  take 
them,”  was  the  reply  of  Leonidas.  The  Persian  troops 
came  on  and  found  the  Grecian  phalanx  planted  across 
the  Pass  of  Thermopylae.  This  phalanx  was  a square 
battalion  of  soldiers  with  their  shields  joined  and  their 
pikes  crossing  each  other.  The  rank  and  file  were  so 
closely  arranged  that  it  was  an  exceedingly  difficult 
task  to  break  it.  For  three  days  the  Persian  host 
threw  itself  upon  that  body  of  devoted  men,  like  waves 
of  the  sea  upon  a rocky  shore,  but  the  Spartans  held 
the  Pass.  At  last  treachery,  which  seemed  to  defile 
the  Greek  character  almost  as  much  as  their  unparal- 
leled heroism  ennobled  it,  succeeded  in  helping  the 
Persians  to  a victory  they  could  not  otherwise  have 
attained.  A Grecian  deserter  showed  the  Persians  a 
secret  path.  When  it  was  found  that  the  Persians 
were  pouring  over  the  mountains,  Leonidas  deter- 
mined to  sacrifice  himself  and  his  devoted  followers  in 
order  to  show  the  Persians  the  unconquerable  nature  of 


Greece. 


195 


the  people  they  sought  to  subjugate.  However  the 
Oracle  had  already  foretold  that  either  Sparta  or  her 
King  must  perish.  Three  hundred  Lacedaemonians 
decided  to  share  the  heroic  fate  of  the  Spartan  king, 
and  without  a hope  of  victory  or  escape  the  little  band 
advanced  to  the  attack,  determined  that  their  lives 
should  be  a costly  sacrifice  to  the  enemy.  Leonidas 
was  the  first  to  fall,  but  his  soldiers  rallied  around 
his  body  and  fought  until  twenty  thousand  Persians 
were  slain.  Only  one  of  the  three  hundred  men  re- 
mained alive  to  carry  the  news  to  Sparta,  but  to 
such  a pitch  had  the  heroic  ardor  of  the  people  been 
raised  that  the'  surviving  man  became  the  contempt 
of  his  countrymen,  who  vied  with  one  another  in  giv- 
ing honor  and  glory  to  those  who  had  so  nobly  died. 
At  the  pass  where  the  Spartan  soldiers  of  Lacedaemon 
so  nobly  fell  was  erected  a monument  bearing  this  in- 
scription, written  by  Simonides : “Go,  stranger,  and 
tell  Lacedaemon  that  we  died  here  in  obedience  to  her 
laws.” 

Meanwhile  a terrible  storm  had  destroyed  hundreds 
of  vessels  in  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  although  it  was 
still  vastly  superior  to  the  Grecian  fleet.  It  had  fol- 
lowed the  land  forces  and  lay  near  them  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Euboea.  Several  hard  and  desperate  en- 
gagements took  place  between  the  opposing  fleets,  the 
Athenians  being  successful  in  every  instance.  Find- 
ing that  the  Persians  had  forced  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae, the  Grecian  fleet  withdrew  and  the  Persians 
took  possession  of  Euboea.  Xerxes  passed  on  through 
Phocis,  burning  the  cities  and  laying  waste  the  coun- 


196 


Ancient  Empires. 


try.  At  this  time  the  Peloponnesians,  disregarding 
the  claims  of  their  allies,  fortified  their  peninsula  by 
building  a strong  wall  across  the  isthmus,  from  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth  to  the  Gulf  of  Athens,  thus  deserting 
the  Athenians.  When  this  unpatriotic  selfishness  was 
discovered  by  the  Athenians  they  abandoned  their 
city  and  all  the  able-bodied  male  citizens  went  aboard 
the  ships,  piously  trusting  in  the  prophecy  of  the 
Oracle  concerning  wooden  walls.  The  city  was  sol- 
emnly committed  to  the  protection  of  Minerva,  and 
the  women  and  children  were  sent  to  Salamis  and 
Aegina.  In  a short  time  Xerxes  reached  Athens, 
burned  the  citadel  and  slaughtered  the  few  citizens 
who  had  determined  to  meet  their  fate  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  city.  All  the  pieces  of  fine  art  found 
in  the  city  were  sent  to  Susa,  which  had  become  the 
capital  of  the  Persian  Empire. 

The  Greek  fleet,  consisting  of  380  vessels,  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Persians  with  a fleet  of  1,200  ships. 
Xerxes  placed  himself  on  an  eminence,  from  which 
he  could  oversee  the  fight,  and  when  the  certainty  of 
defeat  became  apparent,  he  at  once  left  the  scene  and 
hurried  on  across  the  Hellespont. 

The  army  of  Mardonius,  consisting  of  300,000  Per- 
sians, was  met  at  Plataea  by  the  combined  army  of  the 
Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians,  and  totally  defeated, 
B.  C.  479.  As  an  incident  illustrating  the  character 
of  the  age,  on  the  night  before  the  battle  of  Plataea, 
Alexander,  one  of  the  soldiers  of  Macedonian  merce- 
naries fighting  in  the  ranks  of  the  Persians,  stole 
out  of  camp  in  the  darkness  and  visited  the  Greek 


Greece. 


197 


camp,  where  he  called  for  an  interview  with  Aristides, 
informing  him  of  the  Persian  plans  for  the  coming 
attack.  He  excused  his  treachery  toward  the  Per- 
sians by  saying:  “I  am  myself  a Greek  by  descent 
and  with  sorrow  would  I see  Hellas  enslaved  by  the 
Persians.”  Ten  days  were  consumed  by  the  victorious 
Greeks  in  dividing  the  spoils  they  had  secured  by 
their  great  victory.  The  body  of  Mardonius  was 
found  among  the  slain  and  given  honorable  burial  by 
Pausanias.  The  most  conspicuous  traitor  to  the  cause 
of  the  Greeks  was  Thebes.  A contingent  of  Theban 
troops  had  been  placed  by  Mardonius  opposite  the 
Athenians,  and  their  desperate  valor  at  times  seemed 
about  to  win  the  day  for  the  Persians.  The  first 
duty  of  the  victors  was  to  punish  their  treacherous 
kinsmen,  and  Spartan  troops  at  once  proceeded  to 
ravage  their  territory,  and  lay  siege  to  the  city  of 
Thebes.  A demand  was  made  upon  the  authorities  of 
the  city  that  the  leaders  of  the  unnatural  alliance  with 
the  Persians  should  be  given  up  for  punishment. 
This  was  refused,  but  the  leaders  decided  to  .surrender 
themselves,  expecting  that  their  friends  could  ransom 
them,  but  no  sooner  were  they  in  the  power  of  Pau- 
sanias than  they  were  sent  to  Corinth  and  executed. 

On  the  same  day  of  the  victory  at  Plataea  the  Greeks 
destroyed  the  remainder  of  the  Persian  fleet  at  My- 
cale.  The  ambitious  schemes  of  the  Persian  kings  con- 
cerning Greece  thus  came  to  an  end  and  the  inglorious 
life  of  'Xerxes  was  soon  terminated  by  assassination. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longimanus, 
B.  C.  464. 


198 


Ancient  Empires. 


At  the  close  of  this  war  the  national  character  of 
the  Greeks  reached  its  highest  elevation.  The  com- 
mon danger  had  annihilated  all  petty  animosities  and 
made  them  a united  nation,  but  no  sooner  was  the 
common  danger  averted  than  the  Greek  character  for 
internecine  quarrels  reasserted  itself  and  the  petty 
antagonisms  once  more  broke  forth.  Sparta  meanly 
opposed  the  rebuilding  of  Athens,  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  Xerxes,  and  when  Athens  had  again  risen 
to  splendor,  it  saw  with  pleasure  the  depopulation  of 
Sparta  by  an  earthquake,  and  rendered  poor  assist- 
ance when  the  Spartan  slaves  took  advantage  of  the 
calamity  to  rise  in  rebellion. 

When  Cimon,  the  son  of  Mathiades,  who  expelled 
the  Persians  from  Thrace  and  destroyed  their  fleet  off 
the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  was  supplanted  in  public  favor 
by  Pericles,  he  was  exiled,  only  to  be  recalled  for  still 
greater  service  to  his  ungrateful  country.  He  landed 
in  Cilicia  and  completed  his  triumph  over  the  Persians 
by  defeating  three  hundred  thousand  under  Mega- 
byzes,  B.  C.  460.  Artaxerxes,  the  Persian  king,  was 
compelled  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  granted  by 
the  Greeks  on  the  most  favorable  and  honorable  terms. 
The  freedom  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  was  assured, 
and  it  was  stipulated  that  the  fleets  of  Persia  should 
not  approach  the  Grecian  coast  from  the  Euxine  Sea  to 
the  extreme  boundary  of  Pamphylia. 

In  this  period  flourished  Pericles,  Socrates,  Plato, 
Aristotle,  Xeno  and  Pythagaros,  and  others  so  emi- 
nent as  poets,  sculptors,  historians,  architects,  painters 
and  philosophers,  that  no  other  age  in  the  history 


Greece. 


199 


of  the  world  has  been  so  prolific  of  great  men.  Peri- 
cles, in  whom  were  combined  the  characteristics  of  the 
admiral,  general,  statesman  and  orator  died  of  a 
plague  which  raged  at  Athens  B.  C.  429. 

THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR. 

Athens  and  Sparta  were  such  bitter  rivals  for  su- 
premacy that  it  seemed  impossible  for  the  two  to  exist 
together  as  independent  states.  Athens  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Ionic  race  of  Greeks  and  Sparta  at  the  head 
of  the  Doric.  Athens  was  a democracy  and  advocated 
the  widest  liberties  for  the  people.  Sparta  was  an 
aristocracy  and  its  policy  was  to  favor  privileged 
classes.  Athens  was  mistress  of  the  sea  and  in  that 
capacity  was  able  to  demand  and  collect  tribute  from 
her  allies.  Sparta,  not  being  in  a position  to  levy 
tribute,  made  no  claims  upon  its  allies.  On  account 
of  this,  in  the  commencement  of  the  great  contest 
between  the  chief  powers  of  Greece,  the  people  out- 
side of  the  contending  countries  chiefly  favored  Sparta. 
The  Athenian  allies  were  groaning  under  the  burdens 
imposed  upon  them  and  were  secretly  looking  to 
Sparta  for  deliverance. 

Archidamus,  king  of  Sparta,  at  the  head  of  the 
Peloponnesians,  advanced  into  Attica.  Pericles,  who 
commanded  the  Athenian  forces,  determined  to  pre- 
vent a battle,  but,  to  retaliate  for  the  injuries  in- 
flicted by  the  Spartans,  determined  to  make  a descent 
upon  the  Peloponnesian  coast.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  endangered  by  the  advance  of  Archidamus, 
were  caused  to  destroy  their  own  houses  and  fields, 


200 


Ancient  Empires. 


to  remove  their  herds  to  Euboea  and  retire  to  the 
city.  The  distress  of  the  multitudes  thus  gathered 
together  was  very  great,  but  they  cheerfully  lent  their 
energies  toward  the  success  of  the  war.  Archidamus 
ravaged  the  country  and  the  popular  voice  of  Athens 
demanded  a battle.  Pericles,  strong  in  the  wisdom 
of  his  course,  remained  through  the  clamor  fixed  in 
his  purpose.  Meanwhile,  agreeable  to  his  plans,  the 
Athenian  fleet  ravaged  the  western  coast  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  caused  such  distress  among  the  in- 
habitants that  the  Spartan  army  was  compelled  to  re- 
turn to  their  defense.  During  this  period  each  was  de- 
stroying the  other,  while  neither  gained  anything  of 
advantage. 

The  next  year  the  city  of  Athens  was  visited  by  a 
most  virulent  plague,  which  broke  out  in  the  city 
among  the  multitudes  that  were  crowded  together 
there.  The  mortality  was  so  great  that  the  dying 
were  unattended  and  the  dead  were  left  unburied  to 
increase  the  horrors  of  the  pestilence.  As  a strong 
comment  on  human  nature,  the  living,  instead  of 
mending  their  ways,  fell  into  the  most  disgraceful 
licentiousness.  In  the  midst  of  the  general  distress 
Pericles  alone  remained  unmoved,  although  the 
plague  had  swept  away  most  of  his  devoted  personal 
and  political  friends.  His  sister  and  two  sons  were 
its  early  victims.  Only  once  did  this  great  statesman 
give  way  to  his  emotion,  and  that  was  when  his 
youngest  and  favorite  son  was  stricken.  His  ancient 
house  was  now  without  an  heir,  and  his  enemies,  led 
by  the  brilliant  Cleon,  openly  charged  him  with  the 


Greece. 


201 


most  disgraceful  private  and  public  crimes.  It  seemed 
for  a time  as  if  he  was  about  to  be  thrown  from 
the  leadership  of  his  nation,  but  the  investigation  into 
his  conduct,  which  was  made  at  his  demand,  re- 
vealed only  a self-sacrificing  and  noble  patriot.  The 
people  saw  that  an  unjust  persecution  had  been  waged 
against  their  great  leader,  and  he  was  triumphantly 
re-elected  to  the  office  of  Strategus  or  General.  A 
year  later  his  strength  gave  way  under  the  great 
strain  of  sorrow  and  responsibility,  and  he  died.  On 
his  death  bed  he  said  to  his  weeping  friends,  who 
were  recalling  the  brilliancy  and  glory  of  his  achieve- 
ments : “What  you  praise  in  me  is  partly  the  result 
of  good  fortune,  and  at  all  events  common  to  me  with 
many  other  commanders.  What  I chiefly  pride  myself 
upon  you  have  not  noticed.  No  Athenian  ever  wore 
mourning  through  me.” 

In  the  second  campaign,  B.  C.  430,  Attica  was 
ravaged  by  the  Peloponnesians,  and  they  succeeded 
in  plundering  the  silver  mines  of  Alurium.  The  next 
year  Plataea  was  besieged  by  the  Spartans,  who  re- 
minded them  that  the  Spartan  general,  Pausanias, 
after  the  great  victory  in  Plataea,  had  taken  a solemn 
oath  that  the  city  should  forever  be  secure  from  in- 
vasion. To  this  the  Spartans  replied  that  the  oath 
could  not  be  respected  while  Platsea  was  an  ally  of 
Athens,  but  the  Platseans  refused  to  desert  Athens, 
and  the  siege  continued  two  years,  when  the  city  was 
taken  and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to  death.  In  the 
engagements  that  followed  the  Athenians  were  suc- 
cessful, and  at  last  destroyed  the  Spartan  fleet  in  the 


202 


Ancient  Empires. 


harbor  of  Pilos.  A number  of  Spartan  prisoners  of 
rank  were  taken,  and  the  Lacedaemonians,  finding  them- 
selves facing  ruin,  made  earnest  overtures  for  peace, 
but  they  were  rejected. 

Sparta  found,  in  the  young  Brasidas,  a general  of 
new  and  effective  resources.  For  a while  the  cause 
of  Sparta  was  in  the  ascendancy,  but  in  the  battle  near 
Amphipolis,  Brasidas  was  mortally  wounded,  and 
Cleon,  the  Athenian  general,  slain.  The  Athenians 
were  defeated,  and  with  the  death  of  both  the  Athenian 
and  Spartan  leaders,  the  principal  obstacles  to  a gen- 
eral peace  were  removed,  and  in  the  spring  of  B.  C. 
421  a treaty  was  made  to  cover  a period  of  fifty  years. 
This  treaty  was  known  as  the  “Peace  of  Nicias.” 

The  chief  power  at  Athens  was  now  shared  between 
Nicias,  who  was  a nobleman  of  invincible  integrity  and 
patriotism,  and  Alcibiades,  the  grandson  of  Pericles, 
who  was  as  unprincipled  and  profligate  as  he  was  bril- 
liant and  wealthy.  Alcibiades  was  ambitious  to 
achieve  glory  and  power.  Thinking  to  obtain  both 
by  a conquest  of  Sicily,  he  prevailed  upon  the  Athe- 
nians, against  the  counsels  of  Nicias,  to  equip  a fleet 
and  send  it  against  Syracuse,  which  had  favored  the 
Spartans.  The  most  powerful  and  splendid  arma- 
ment that  Athens  had  ever  raised  in  war  was  sent 
upon  the  expedition,  with  Alcibiades,  Nicias  and  La- 
machus  as  chief  commanders.  The  night  previous  to 
the  departure  of  the  fleet  a series  of  outrages  had 
been  attempted  upon  the  images  of  Mercury,  and  for 
some  cause  suspicion  was  made  to  rest  upon  Alcibi- 
ades. No  greater  crime  could  be  charged  upon  an 


Greece. 


203 


Athenian  than  disrespect  to  the  national  gods,  and 
when  Alcibiades  was  summoned  home  for  trial  he 
left  the  fleet,  fled  to  the  Peloponnesus  and  joined  the 
Spartans. 

When  Syracuse  learned  of  the  threatened  attack  it 
at  once  implored  aid  of  Sparta,  and  the  Spartans  were 
considering  what  to  do  when  Alcibiades  appeared 
among  them,  burning  with  resentment  against  his  na- 
tive country.  He  adopted  the  plain  dress  and  severe 
manner  of  the  Spartans,  and  by  his  skill,  so  artfully 
wrought  upon  their  fears  and  their  pride  as  to  per- 
suade them  not  only  fo  send  supplies  into  Sicily,  but 
to  enter  upon  an  invasion  of  Attica.  Meanwhile,  the 
siege  of  Syracuse  was  in  progress,  and  when  a power- 
ful Spartan  force  arrived  at  Syracuse  under  Glippus, 
Nicias  sent  to  Athens  for  re-enforcements,  which  were 
sent  to  him  under  Demosthenes,  a relative  of  the  great 
orator.  The  Athenians  were  unable  to  make  any 
progress  in  their  siege  of  Syracuse.  On  the  contrary, 
the  battles  fought  by  sea  and  land  were  generally  un- 
favorable to  Athens.  At  last  they  were  forced  to  re- 
treat, when  both  Nicias  and  Demosthenes  were  taken 
prisoners  and  slain.  The  Athenians  were  dismayed  at 
these  disasters  and  the  republic  seemed  all  but  lost. 
Their  navy  was  destroyed,  their  treasury  exhausted 
and  their  allies  were  in  revolt,  but  the  indomitable 
spirit  of  the  people  rose  to  increased  vigor  with  each 
disaster.  All  their  resources  were  now  employed  to 
retrieve  their  lost  fortunes,  and  they  would  doubtless 
have  been  successful  over  the  limited  resources  of 
Sparta  if  it  had  not  been  that  Sparta  found  help  in 
Persia.  Lysander,  an  accomplished  Spartan,  visited 


204 


Ancient  Empires. 


the  satraps  of  Lydia  and  of  the  Hellespont  and  per- 
suaded them  to  furnish  his  people  with  the  supplies 
necessary  for  them  to  carry  on  the  war  with  their 
neighbors.  The  object  of  Persia  was  not  to  benefit 
Sparta,  but  to  ruin  Greece. 

During  this  time  Alcibiades  had  not  found  the  favor 
at  Sparta  which  he  had  hoped  to  gain.  He  visited 
Sardis  and  won  the  friendship  of  Tissaphernes,  the 
satrap  of  Lydia.  His  dejected  and  almost  ruined 
country  now  saw  that  Alcibiades  was  the  only  Athe- 
nian who  had  the  ability  to  extricate  them  from  their 
difficulties.  They,  therefore,  urgently  invited  him  to 
return.  He  did  so  and  was  appointed  general  in  chief 
of  the  Athenian  forces.  Under  his  guidance  the  for- 
tunes of  Athens  arose.  Athenian  supremacy  was 
established  in  Ionia,  and  Thrace  and  Bysantium  were 
taken. 

During  the  absence  of  Alcibiades  on  one  of  these 
expeditions  and  contrary  to  his  orders,  the  Athenian 
fleet  attacked  the  Spartan  fleet  commanded  by  Ly- 
sander  at  Notium,  and  was  defeated.  The  news  of 
this  terrible  disaster  came  to  Athens  about  midnight. 
The  citizens  were  aroused  from  their  slumbers  by  the 
fearful  tidings,  and  they  thronged  the  public  places  in 
consternation  and  distraction.  The  situation  of  the 
city  was  desperate,  as  the  sources  from  which  the 
Athenians  drew  their  provisions  were  now  in  the  hands 
of  the  Spartans  and  starvation  seemed  to  be  before 
them.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Public  Assembly  early 
in  the  morning  it  was  agreed  to  set  free  all  prisoners 
except  those  guilty  of  the  most  unpardonable  crimes 


Greece. 


205 


in  order  to  enable  them  to  take  part  in  the  public 
defense.  Debtors  were  released  from  their  obligations 
and  the  citizens  of  all  classes  met  in  the  acropolis  and 
swore  solemn  oaths  of  mutual  forgiveness  and  har- 
mony. The  fall  of  the  city  was  plainly  only  a question 
of  time,  as  famine  at  once  appeared  within  the  walls. 
They  offered  to  submit  to  terms  of  peace,  provided 
the  Spartans  allowed  them  to  retain  their  long  walls 
and  the  port  of  Piranes,  but  the  Spartan  Ephors  re- 
jected the  conditions.  Archestratus,  one  of  the  sena- 
tors, arose  to  speak  in  favor  of  accepting  the  Spartan 
terms,  but  he  was  at  once  seized  and  imprisoned  by 
the  indignant  citizens,  although  hundreds  were  then 
dying  from  hunger.  Three  months  of  negotiation  fol- 
lowed, during  which  the  suffering  of  the  people  be- 
came so  great  that  the  Public  Assembly  decided  to 
accept  peace  on  any  terms. 

The  Thebans  and  Corinthians  implored  Sparta  to  de- 
stroy Athens,  obliterate  its  name  and  to  deport  the 
entire  population  as  slaves  into  foreign  countries.  At 
this  time,  while  their  enemy  was  helpless  at  their  feet, 
the  Spartans  exhibited  the  only  generosity  ever  known 
in  their  history.  They  declared  that  the  city  should 
neither  be  annihilated  nor  the  people  enslaved  which 
had  assisted  to  make  so  glorious  the  name  of  Greece. 
In  March,  B.  C.  404,  Lysander  took  formal  possession 
of  Piranes  and  the  Spartan  army  entered  Athens. 
Thus,  after  twenty-seven  years  of  war,  Athens  fell 
and  Sparta,  in  alliance  with  Persia,  was  supreme  in 
Greece.  Free  government  was  destroyed  and  oli- 
garchy set  up  in  its  stead. 


206 


Ancient  Empires. 


After  the  crushing  defeat  at  Notium,  which  was  the 
cause  of  the  Athenian  downfall,  the  panic-stricken 
people,  without  investigation,  attributed  the  disaster 
to  the  mismanagement  of  Alcibiades,  who  was  dis- 
missed from  the  command  and  exiled.  He  sought  ref- 
uge with  Pharnabazus,  in  Phrygia,  where  he  was 
treacherously  betrayed  to  the  enraged  Athenians  by  the 
Spartans.  Soldiers  were  sent  to  take  him.  They  ar- 
rived at  night  and  set  fire  to  his  house.  As  he  at- 
tempted to  escape  the  soldiers  killed  him  with  arrows. 
He  was  left  where  he  fell,  and  it  is  said  that  one 
woman  alone  remained  who  had  sufficient  regard  for 
him  to  give  his  body  decent  burial. 

Sparta  ruled  Greece  under  the  constitution  and 
laws  of  Lycurgus,  under  which  the  Spartans  had  come 
to  their  present  power,  but  the  self-sacrificing  spirit 
of  public  virtue  had  passed  away  and  the  corruptions 
of  Persian  influence  gradually  made  of  them  a de- 
generate people.  The  authority  at  Athens  was  vested 
in  an  assembly  of  men  known  as  the  Thirty  Tyrants, 
who  were  led  by  Critias,  an  unscrupulous  politician, 
who  had  formerly  been  banished  from  the  city  and 
who  now  used  his  position  for  the  gratification  of  his 
revenge.  Everything  was  administered  for  Lacedae- 
monian interests,  and  scenes  of  profligacy  and  tyranny 
prevailed  over  all  other  considerations. 

It  was  during  this  time  that  there  lived  in  Athens 
one  individual  whose  character  shines  forth  in  the 
brightest  luster  of  ancient  times.  Socrates,  the  teacher 
and  philosopher,  alone  resisted  the  tyranny  of  vice 
with  calmness  and  invincible  integrity.  Such  a reign 


Greece. 


207 


of  debauchery  and  oppression  could  not  long  continue. 
A year  had  hardly  passed  when  Thrasybulus,  at  the 
head  of  a number  of  his  exiled  countrymen,  entered 
Athens  and  drove  out  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  Pousanis, 
now  king  of  Sparta,  favored  Thrasybulus,  and  he  pro- 
cured the  banishment  of  the  Tyrants  from  Greece. 
The  constitution  of  Solon  was  restored,  but  the  better 
spirit  of  Greece  had  departed.  This  degenerate  state 
of  affairs  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
wisest  and  best  man  among  them  was  condemned  to 
death  without  cause.  His  death  was  procured  by  the 
Sophists,  a sect  whom  Socrates  justly  despised.  The 
verdict  rendered  by  his  judges  was  that  he  must  drink 
a cup  of  hemlock.  His  friends  could  easily  have  se- 
cured his  escape  by  bribery,  but  he  refused  to  owe  his 
life  to  such  means.  While  the  poison  was  taking  ef- 
fect he  calmly  conversed  with  his  friends  as  long  as 
he  could  speak.  One  of  them  spoke  regretfully  of  the 
fact  that  he  should  die  innocent.  Socrates,  with  a 
smile,  answered  him  : “Would  you  have  me  die  guilty?” 
Xenophon,  his  friend  and  pupil,  says  of  him : “To  me, 
most  emphatically  (being  as  I have  described  him,  so 
pious,  that  he  undertook  nothing  without  the  counsel 
of  the  gods;  so  just,  that  he  never  injured  any  one — 
no,  not  even  in  the  slightest  degree — but  was  of  the 
greatest  service  to  those  that  associated  with  him ; so 
temperate  that  he  never  preferred  pleasure  to  virtue ; 
so  sensible,  that  he  never  erred  in  distinguishing  the 
better  from  the  worse,  without  requiring  aid  from  any 
one  else,  but  being  of  himself  perfectly  competent  to 
discriminate  between  them ; so  capable  of  discoursing 


208 


Ancient  Empires. 


upon  and  defining  such  matter,  and  so  skilled  in  esti- 
mating the  character  of  others  and  in  convincing  those 
who  were  in  error  and  persuading  them  to  the  pursuit 
of  virtue  and  all  that  was  honorable  and  good),  he 
seemed  to  be  such  an  one  as  the  very  best  and  happiest 
man  could  be.” 

Artaxerxes  Mnemon  (so  called  for  his  remarkable 
memory)  succeeded  his  father,  Darius  Nothus,  to  the 
throne  of  Persia,  and  his  brother,  known  as  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  determined  to  dethrone  him.  Gathering  to- 
gether a considerable  army  from  disaffected  portions 
of  the  empire  and  hiring  thirteen  thousand  Greeks, 
Cyrus  engaged  Artaxerxes  near  Babylon,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain. 

The  army  of  Cyrus  now  went  to  pieces,  leaving  the 
remainder  of  the  Grecian  army,  to  the  number  of  about 
ten  thousand,  in  the  most  deplorable  situation.  All 
the  Greek  officers  were  invited  to  a conference  with 
the  Persian  commander  and  were  treacherously  slain. 
The  command  of  the  Greeks  then  devolved  upon  a 
young  officer  named  Xenophon,  and  under  his  com- 
mand began  the  most  amazing  retreat  known  in  his- 
tory. They  traversed  a hostile  country  sixteen  hun- 
dred miles  in  extent  to  the  banks  of  the  Euxine.  Not 
less  famous  than  the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  is 
the  history  of  their  adventures  and  sufferings  written 
by  Xenophon,  the  commander.  Xenophon  is  not  more 
renowned  as  a historian  than  as  an  essayist.  He  was 
a disciple  of  Socrates,  and  after  his  adventures  in 
Asia  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Corinth,  where  he  wrote 
seven  books,  and  died  B.  C.  357. 


Greece. 


209 


The  Greek  cities  in  Asia,  having  taken  part  with 
Cyrus  in  the  rebellion  against  Artaxerxes,  became  the 
object  of  the  Persian  king’s  wrath,  and  Sparta  engaged 
to  defend  them.  This  involved  Greece  again  in  a war 
with  Persia.  If  Athens  had  added  her  strength,  Greece 
might  once  more  have  defied  the  powers  of  Asia,  but 
jealousy  and  bitter  personal  antagonisms  so  divided 
the  two  states  that  no  union  could  be  formed.  At  this 
time  Persian  gold  began  to  play  a principal  part  in  the 
disintegration  of  Greek  strength.  Artaxerxes  was 
thus  enabled  to  secure  a general  league  in  Greece 
against  Lacedaemonia.  For  some  time  Agesiliaus,  king 
of  Sparta,  saved  the  honor  of  his  country  and  won 
some  important  battles  in  Asia,  but  a naval  defeat 
near  Cnidus  utterly  destroyed  the  Lacedaemonian  pow- 
er at  sea.  In  order  to  escape  total  destruction,  the 
Spartans  were  compelled  to  accept  peace  by  sacrificing 
to  Persia,  B.  C.  387,  all  their  colonies  in  Asia,  including 
the  islands  of  Scyros,  Lemnos  and  Imbros. 

THEBAN  SUPREMACY. 

The  Lacedaemonians,  in  order  to  secure  themselves 
in  power,  fraudulently  took  possession  of  the  citadel 
of  Thebes.  Redress  could  not  be  obtained  against  this 
violation  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  and  four  hundred  of 
the  principal  Thebans  found  themselves  under  the 
necessity  of  withdrawing  from  the  town  and  going 
to  Athens  for  protection.  The  liberty  of  Thebes 
seemed  about  to  be  destroyed  and  the  ascend- 
ancy of  Sparta  appeared  to  be  more  firmly  estab- 
lished, but  Thebes  was  destined  to  crush  the  op- 


210 


Ancient  Empires. 


pressors  to  whom  they  had  been  subjected.  Thebes 
possessed  two  men  of  uncommon  merit.  One  of  them, 
Pelopidas,  was  still  young  and  the  only  heir  of  a 
wealthy  family.  He  spent  his  fortune  in  assisting 
the  needy  and  distressed,  not  as  a demagogue,  but  as 
a philanthropist.  The  other  was  Epaminondas,  who 
lived  in  honorable  poverty.  It  is  stated  that  he  was  so 
attached  to  truth,  that  he  could  not  listen  to  a falsehood 
uttered  even  in  jest.  These  able  statesmen  were  not 
only  devoted  citizens,  but  skillful  generals,  and  through 
their  principles  of  patriotism,  became  the  heroes  of 
their  age.  So  far  from  the  envious  jealousies  that 
ruined  the  careers  of  so  many  others,  these  men  were 
full  of  esteem  for  each  other,  and  their  intimacy  lasted 
during  their  whole  life,  in  which  their  eminent  services 
and  talents  were  united  for  the  benefit  of  their  native 
country.  These  two  illustrious  men  not  only  deliv- 
ered Thebes  from  oppression,  but,  by  their  glorious 
achievements,  raised  it  to  the  first  rank  among  the 
cities  of  Greece.  Pelopidas  was  one  of  the  four  hun- 
dred Thebans  driven  away  by  the  Lacedaemonians’ 
party  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Athens.  When  Thrasy- 
bulus  set  out  from  Thebes  to  destroy  the  Tyrants  of 
Athens,  Pelopidas  declared  that  he  and  his  fellow 
exiles  should  at  once  go  forth  from  Athens  to  destroy 
the  Tyrants  of  Thebes.  This  was  agreed  upon,  and 
they  entered  the  city  after  dark  in  disguise  and 
marched  to  the  house  where  the  Spartan  party  were 
feasting  at  a banquet.  Just  before  the  conspirators 
reached  the  house  a messenger  from  Athens  reached 
the  banqueters  and  delivered  a letter  which  he  told 


Greece. 


211 


them  demanded  immediate  attention,  as  it  contained 
information  of  the  most  serious  character.  “Seri- 
ous affairs  for  tomorrow,”  exclaimed  the  first  of 
the  magistrates,  and  the  letter  was  laid  aside. 
It  was  no  difficult  task  for  the  assailants  to  put  the 
drunken  revelers  to  the  sword  and  seize  the  capital. 
The  Thebans,  encouraged  by  Epaminondas  and  Pelopi- 
das  and  assisted  by  Athenian  and  Boeotian  troops,  be- 
sieged the  capital  and  compelled  the  Lacedaemonian 
garrison  to  surrender.  A body  of  Spartan  troops  soon 
arrived  for  the  assistance  of  the  garrison,  but  it  was 
too  late,  and  Thebes  was  now  ready  to  punish  her 
enemy.  War  was  declared  and  many  small  engage- 
ments followed,  in  which  the  Thebans  was  usually  vic- 
torious. The  Spartan,  Antalcidas,  one  day  seeing  Ages- 
iliaus  returning  wounded  from  one  of  these  engage- 
ments, said:  “Truly,  you  are  well  paid  for  teaching 
the  Thebans  to  fight  when  they  have  neither  inclina- 
tion nor  sufficient  skill  for  it.”  However,  the  coming 
efficiency  of  the  Theban  troops  is  not  to  be  attributed 
so  much  to  what  the  Spartans  taught  them  in  these 
preliminary  contests,  but  to  the  prudent  generals  who 
led  them  into  the  field,  inured  them  to  the  labors  of 
military  life  and  inspired  them  to  be  courageous  heroes. 

That  Pelopidas  was  eminently  qualified  for  the  war- 
fare before  him  was  shown  at  the  battle  of  Tegyrae, 
which  was  preliminary  to  that  of  Leuctra.  No  other 
commander  could  lay  claim  to  share  in  any  of  the  honor 
of  that  day,  and  there  was  no  pretext  for  the  enemy 
to  cover  the  shame  of  their  defeat.  As  he  was  re- 
turning from  Orchomelus  to  Tegyrae  with  some  cav- 


212 


Ancient  Empires. 


airy,  accompanied  by  some  young  Thebans,  known  as 
the  Sacred  Band,  he  suddenly  met  a detachment  of 
Lacedaemonians  three  times  his  own  number.  “We  have 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,”  exclaimed  a 
Theban.  “And  why,”  replied  Pelopidas,  “should  we 
not  rather  say  that  they  have  fallen  into  ours?”  In 
the  struggle  that  followed  the  Spartans  were  put  to 
flight  with  terrible  slaughter.  Never  before  had  they 
been  conquered  in  a regular  fight.  Heretofore  they 
had  not  needed  a number  equal  to  their  enemy  in 
order  to  be  successful,  but  here  they  fought  an  enemy 
hardly  equaling  one-third  their  own  number  and  were 
disastrously  defeated.  The  situation  following  this 
was  such  that  both  contestants  determined  to  come  to- 
gether in  a decisive  engagement.  The  army  of  the 
Lacedaemonians  was  commanded  by  King  Cleombro- 
tus,  and  consisted  of  twenty-four  thousand  infantry, 
with  sixteen  hundred  cavalry.  The  Thebans  had  just 
one-fourth  that  number  in  their  ranks.  Epaminondas 
was  commander  in  chief  and  Pelopidas  led  the  Sacred 
Band.  The  Theban  force  was  arranged  in  a masterly 
manner.  Epaminondas  designed  to  throw  his  cavalry 
upon  the  Lacedaemonian  phalanx,  believing  that  if  he 
could  once  break  through,  the  rest  of  the  Spartan  army 
would  give  him  but  little  trouble.  According  to  this 
design,  the  cavalry  began  the  battle.  The  Theban 
horsemen  made  an  impetuous  attack  upon  the  Lacedae- 
monian cavalry  and  drove  them  in  confusion  back  upon 
the  infantry,  thus  throwing  the  soldiers  into  disorder. 
Epaminondas  followed  this  advantage  by  throwing  his 
heaviest  battalions  upon  the  Spartans  commanded  by 


Greece. 


218 


King  Cleombrotus.  The  Spartan  king,  in  order  to  dis- 
tract Epaminondas,  detached  a body  of  his  troops  and 
gave  it  orders  to  fall  upon  the  Theban  flank,  but  Pelopi- 
das  saw  this  movement,  and  with  incredible  speed 
dashed  upon  them  with  his  Sacred  Band,  driving  them 
back  and  thus  falling  upon  the  flank  o*f  the  Spartans. 
This  unexpected  frustration  of  his  plans,  with  its  conse- 
quent advantage,  was  of  powerful  assistance  to  the 
struggle  then  going  on  in  the  center  between  Epami- 
nondas and  Cleombrotus.  The  conflict  was  fierce  and 
obstinate  as  long  as  the  king  lived,  but  presently  he 
fell,  and  the  Lacedaemonians,  unable  any  longer  to 
resist  the  crushing  attacks  of  the  enemey,  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  Although  they  succeeded  in  recov- 
ering the  body  of  their  king,  they  were  unable  to  re- 
store their  lost  fortunes.  It  was  the  greatest  defeat 
they  had  ever  experienced.  Four  thousand  of  their 
bravest  troops  lay  on  the  field,  while  the  Thebans  did 
not  lose  more  than  three  hundred  men.  At  this  battle, 
B.  C.  371,  was  given  the  fatal  blow  to  the  power  of 
Sparta  and  to  her  superiority  in  Greece,  which  had 
been  maintained  for  nearly  five  hundred  years. 

The  victory  of  the  Thebans  drew  over  to  their  side 
a number  of  allies  who  had  heretofore  sided  with  the 
Lacedaemonians.  Thus,  within  the  space  of  a year, 
their  army  was  increased  to  seventy  thousand  men,  of 
which  the  Thebans  were  only  a twelfth  part.  Epami- 
nondas invaded  Laconia  and  plundered  the  country 
as  far  as  the  river  Eurotas.  He  pressed  on  to  the  sub- 
urbs of  Sparta  and  challenged  the  Lacedaemonians  to 
a new  battle,  though,  in  order  not  to  dissatisfy  the  rest 


214 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  Greece,  he  did  not  force  them  to  a fight  and  did  not 
enter  their  territory.  However,  he  took  every  measure 
at  hand  to  humble  their  pride  and  cripple  their  power. 
Epaminondas  pointedly  expressed  this  policy  by  saying 
that  he  had  reduced  the  Spartans  to  the  necessity  of 
lengthening  their  monosyllables.  This  was  a signifi- 
cant allusion  to  the  peremptory  character  of  their 
manners  and  language.  Even  in  their  decline  they 
did  not  lay  aside  that  style  of  language,  which  has 
become  known  as  the  ‘‘laconic.”  This  is  certain  from 
the  fact  that  when  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  wrote 
them  a threatening  letter,  saying  that  “if  he  once  en- 
tered their  territory  he  would  destroy  everything  in 
it  with  fire  and  sword,”  the  Lacedaemonians  answered 
with  the  single  monosyllable,  “If.”  But  Epaminondas 
obliged  them  by  his  victories  to  alter  their  preten- 
sions and  to  have  recourse  to  humble,  as  well  as 
lengthy,  discourses  and  negotiations. 

In  all  these  achievements  Pelopidas  ably  seconded 
Epaminondas,  both  of  them  gaining  imperishable  laur- 
els and  attracting  universal  admiration. 

King  Agesiliaus  was  shut  up  within  the  precincts  of 
Lacedaemon  and  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  coun- 
try overrun  by  the  Thebans  and  to  acknowledge  the 
refutation  of  his  former  boast  that  “No  Spartan  women 
ever  saw  the  smoke  of  an  enemy’s  camp.” 

As  an  instance  of  the  invincible  devotion  to  civil 
law,  when  the  Theban  generals  returned  from  their 
brilliant  campaign,  they  were  arraigned  before  a court 
of  justice  for  having  kept  command  of  the  troops  a 
little  longer  than  was  permitted  by  law.  Pelopidas  did 


Greece. 


215 


not  defend  his  cause  with  much  courage  and  he  was, 
with  much  difficulty,  acquitted  by  his  judges.  Epami- 
nondas,  on  the  contrary*  began  to  extol  the  things  he 
had  done  in  a strain  of  animated  eloquence,  declaring 
that  he  would  die  with  pleasure  if  it  should  be  stated 
in  the  verdict  against  him  “that  he  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  Thebans  for  having  obliged  them  to 
conquer  the  Lacedaemonians  at  Leuctra,  for  having 
by  this  single  victory  not  only  saved  his  nation  from 
utter  ruin,  but  even  secured  the  liberties  of  all  Greece, 
for  having  carried  the  victorious  arms  of  Thebes  to  the 
very  gates  of  Sparta,  and  made  the  Spartans  tremble 
for  their  safety;  in  fine,  for  having  restored  in  their 
neighborhood  the  strength  of  the  Messenians,  their  for- 
mer and  irreconcilable  enemies.”  His  eloquent  words 
made  a verdict  against  him  impossible,  and  the  trial 
only  added  to  the  popular  applause. 

Previous  to  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  Epaminondas  had 
occasion  to  show  his  fearlessness  and  magnanimity  be- 
fore an  assembly  of  Grecians  at  Lacedaemon,  which 
had  come  there  to  adjust  the  differences  of  the  states. 
The  chief  question  to  be  settled  between  them  was 
whether  Sparta  should  set  free  the  cities  of  Laconia 
and  Thebes  the  cities  of  Boeotia,  in  accordance  with  the 
treaty  that  had  been  made.  Epaminondas  was  one  of 
the  ambassadors,  and  he  saw  that  his  fellow  deputies 
were  being  awed  by  the  presence  of  King  Agesiliaus. 
Firm  in  the  rectitude  of  his  course,  he  made  a speech 
in  favor  not  only  of  the  Thebans,  but  all  Greece  in 
general,  showing  that  peace  should  be  founded  upon 
justice  and  equality.  In  order  to  turn  the  current  of 


216 


Ancient  Empires. 


opinion  that  was  flowing  toward  Epaminondas,  Agesi- 
liaus  asked  him  whether  he  thought  it  equitable  for  the 
cities  of  Boeqtia  to  be  declared  independent.  Epami- 
nondas hastily  answered  by  asking  in  turn  if  Agesiliaus 
thought  it  right  for  the  cities  of  Laconia  to  be  declared 
free.  The  king  of  Sparta  was  incensed  at  this  retort 
and  started  up,  insisting  that  his  question  be  first  an- 
swered. Epaminondas  calmly  repeated  his  question. 
Exasperated  at  this,  too  glad  of  a pretext  to  declare 
war  again,  Thebes  struck  its  name  from  the  treaty. 
The  war  that  followed  was  one  full  of  disaster  to  the 
arrogant  king  of  Sparta. 

A contemporary,  extolling  the  merits  of  Epaminon- 
das, said  that  he  had  never  seen  a man  who  knew  more 
and  spoke  less  than  Epaminondas. 

After  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  when  receiving  the  con- 
gratulations of  his  friends,  he  said : “My  own  joy 
arises  from  the  anticipation  of  that  which  the  news  of 
my  success  will  give  to  my  father  and  mother.” 

Pelopidas  was  appointed  thirteen  times  governor  of 
Boeotia,  and  he  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
men  in  Theban  history. 

The  Lacedaemonians  were  so  humbled  by  their  de- 
feat and  so  apprehensive  of  new  dangers  that  they  ap- 
plied for  help  to  their  greatest  enemies,  the  Athenians 
and  Persians.  Ambassadors  were  sent  to  Artaxerxes 
Mnenon,  king  of  Persia,  from  Athens  and  Sparta.  To 
counteract  this  Thebes  sent  Pelopidas  to  the  court  of 
Persia.  So  great  was  the  renown  of  this  ambassador 
that  the  king  received  him  in  person  with  extraordi- 
nary honors.  Pelopidas  obtained  a treaty  from  the 


Greece. 


217 


Persian  king,  which  guaranteed  that  Messenia  should 
remain  an  independent  state  and  that  the  Athenians 
should  not  be  allowed  to  prey  upon  the  Boeotian  coast. 

Peace  could  not  last  long  among  the  Grecian  states, 
and  the  question  now  arose  as  to  which  should  have 
the  sovereignty  of  Peloponnesus.  The  sword  was  the 
only  resort,  and  Epaminondas  rapidly  gathered  his 
forces,  entered  the  hostile  territory  and  occupied  a 
strong  position  at  Tegea  in  order  to  attack  the  Man- 
tinians,  who  had  been  unfaithful  to  Thebes.  Epami- 
nondas was  informed  that  Agesiliaus  was  coming  with 
a force  of  Spartans  to  relieve  the  Mantinians.  Tak- 
ing a different  road  from  that  on  which  Agesiliaus  was 
advancing,  Epaminondas  attempted  to  strike  a quick 
blow  at  Sparta.  Happily  Agesiliaus  was  informed  in 
time  to  retrace  his  steps  and  reach  the  city  before 
Epaminondas.  Baffled  in  this  attempt,  the  Theban  re- 
turned to  Mantinea,  only  to  find  the  strong  position  he 
had  left  occupied  by  his  enemies.  Epaminondas  now 
determined  to  strike  a decisive  blow.  The  Spartans  and 
their  allies  were  no  less  determined,  also,  that  the 
coming  battle  should  mean  the  complete  overthrow 
of  their  enemy.  The  Lacedaemonians  had  twenty 
thousand  infantry  and  two  thousand  cavalry, 
while  the  Thebans  had  thirty  thousand  infantry 
and  three  thousand  cavalry.  Epaminondas  se- 
lected his  choice  troops,  formed  them  in  a 
dense  column,  and  ordered  what  he  believed  to  be 
an  irresistible  attack  on  the  Lacedaemonian  infan- 
try. The  troops  fought  on  each  side  with  the  great- 
est bravery.  Both  sides  were  resolved  to  perish  to  a 


218 


Ancient  Empires. 


man  rather  than  yield  victory  to  their  rivals.  When 
their  spears  were  broken  they  rushed  at  each  other  in 
a hand-to-hand  conflict  with  their  swords.  The  car- 
nage was  frightful  on  both  sides,  but  Epaminondas, 
seeing  that  any  extraordinary  diversion  might  win 
the  day,  gathered  around  him  the  bravest  and  most 
determined  heroes,  whom  he  led  in  an  attack  so  vig- 
orous that  the  Spartan  phalanx  wavered  and  was  then 
broken.  Animated  by  their  general’s  example,  the 
Theban  troops  assailed  their  enemy  with  desperate 
courage.  In  the  decisive  moment  Epaminondas  re- 
ceived a mortal  wound  in  the  breast  from  a javelin. 
He  fell  in  the  sight  of  all  and  the  battle  raged  with  re- 
doubled fury  around  the  dying  hero.  One  side  at- 
tempted to  take  him  prisoner,  while  the  other  as  des- 
perately fought  to  rescue  him  from  their  grasp.  The 
onslaughts  of  the  Thebans  could  not  be  withstood  and 
the  Spartans  gave  way.  However,  so  dearly  was  vic- 
tory bought  that  the  only  reason  for  considering  the 
Thebans  victorious  was  from  the  fact  that  they  re- 
mained masters  of  the  field.  Epaminondas  was  car- 
ried into  the  camp,  and  the  surgeons,  after  examin- 
ing the  wound,  declared  that  he  would  die  as  soon  as 
the  dart  was  extracted.  Those  present  were  over- 
whelmed with  grief,  but  the  only  concern  of  Epami- 
nondas was  the  success  of  the  battle.  They  showed 
him  his  shield,  and  he  kissed  it  as  a faithful  com- 
panion of  his  dangers  and  exploits.  When  told  that 
the  Thebans  were  victorious,  he  said,  with  a placid 
countenance : “I  have  lived  long  enough  since  I die 
unconquered.  I leave  Thebes  triumphant,  proud 


Greece. 


219 


Sparta  humbled  and  Greece  delivered  from  the  yoke  of 
servitude.  I do  not  die  without  issue,  as  Leuctra  and 
Mantinia  are  my  two  illustrious  daughters,  who  will 
not  fail  to  keep  my  memory  alive  and  transmit  it  to 
posterity.”  After  having  said  this  he  drew  the  javelin 
from  his  wound  and  immediately  expired. 

The  year  before  this,  Pelopidas  had  died  under  very 
similar  circumstances  while  leading  an  expedition 
against  a Thessalian  prince. 

MACEDONIAN  SUPREMACY. 

In  the  time  of  Herodotus  Macedon  was  only  a small 
district  in  the  vicinity  of  Mt.  Pindus.  Macedon  or 
Macedonia  had  widely  varying  boundaries  at  different 
times.  Its  southeastern  borders  were  upon  the  Aegian 
Sea.  Previous  to  the  time  of  Philip  the  history  of 
Macedonia  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  The  Illyri- 
an tribe,  from  which  the  Macedonians  sprung,  differed 
in  race  and  language  from  the  Hellenes  or  Greeks. 
Herodotus  states  that  the  Macedon  monarchy  was 
founded  by  Greeks  from  Argos  ; although  several  Greek 
writers  speak  of  twelve  or  fifteen  Grecian  princes  who 
reigned  in  Macedon  before  the  accession  of  Philip,  \et 
that  period  was  shrouded  in  deep  obscurity.  Philip 
appeared  in  the  affairs  of  government  B.  C.  360,  not 
as  monarch,  but  as  guardian  of  his  elder  brother’s  in- 
fant son.  Philip  had  spent  several  years  as  a hostage 
in  Thebes,  where  he  had  availed  himself  of  every  op- 
portunity to  learn  of  his  more  advanced  neighbors. 
He  made  a careful  study  of  the  Greek  language  and 
through  his  contact  with  Epaminondas  and  other  The- 


220 


Ancient  Empires. 


ban  generals,  he  became  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  military  tactics  of  the  Greeks.  He  also  made  him- 
self master  of  their  statescraft,  and,  with  the  superior 
mental  and  physical  endowments  given  him  by  nature, 
he  became  eminently  fitted  for  the  part  which  he  took 
in  the  great  game  of  politics  and  war.  He  did  not 
have  the  masterful  abilities  of  his  distinguished  son, 
Alexander  the  Great,  or  the  powerful  ambition  and 
genius  of  Julius  Caesar,  nevertheless,  he  had  the  mind 
to  grasp  the  condition  of  his  times  and  to  set  in  the 
ranks  of  surrounding  states  the  foundation  of  do- 
minion and  power.  He  had  the  good  fortune  to  meet 
Olympias,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Epirus,  who  became 
ennobled  in  history  as  the  mother  of  the  great  Alex- 
ander. 

While  Philip  was  governing  the  country  in  behalf 
of  his  little  nephew,  his  military  successes  enabled  him 
to  take  upon  himself  the  title  of  king,  doubtless  with 
the  unanimous  consent  of  all  parties  in  the  nation. 
Several  Thracian  J:owns  were  annexed  to  his  dominions 
during  this  time.  He  reduced  to  subjection  his  north- 
ern and  western  neighbors.  As  policy  and  advantage 
dictated,  he  was  the  enemy  or  ally  of  the  Southern 
Greeks.  At  length  the  Thessalian  allies  of  Thebes 
in  the  sacred  war  against  the  Phocians,  invited  him  to 
come  to  their  assistance.  This  was  an  opportunity 
which  he  had  long  coveted  for  a more  active  interfer- 
ence in  the  affairs  of  his  southern  neighbors.  At  first 
he  was  repulsed  by  the  Phocians  and  their  allies  and 
was  obliged  to  retreat  to  Macedonia,  but  he  soon 
equipped  a stronger  force  and  defeated  the  enemy  in 


Greece. 


221 


a decisive  battle.  He  would  have  marched  at  once  to 
Phocis  and  terminated  the  war,  but  he  found  the  Athe- 
nians drawn  up  in  force  at  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae, 
and,  taking  prudence  from  the  disasters  of  former  in- 
vaders at  that  pass,  attempted  to  go  no  further.  The 
Thebans  clamored  for  him  to  continue  until  the  Pho- 
eians  were  subjugated  and  the  profaners  of  the  na- 
tional religion  adequately  punished. 

Plis  statesmanship  now ‘came  to  the  assistance  of 
his  generalship,  and,  despite  the  burning  orations  of 
Demosthenes  against  him,  he  succeeded  in  lulling  the 
suspicions  of  the  Athenians  with  proposals  of  advan- 
tageous peace.  After  this  he  marched  unopposed  into 
Phocis  and  compelled  the  submission  of  the  enemy. 
The  Amphictyonic  Council  was  now  restored  to  its 
ancient  authority.  As  it  was  under  the  control  of 
Philip,  the  Phocians  were  doomed  to  lose  their  inde- 
pendence forever.  Their  cities  were  leveled  to  the 
ground,  the  population  was  not  allowed  to  collect  in 
villages  of  more  than  fifty  inhabitants,  and  they  were 
condemned  to  pay  a yearly  tribute  of  sixty  talents 
until  the  whole  amount  should  be  restored  which  had 
been  plundered  from  the  temple.  But  as  an  evidence 
of  the  complete  servility  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council, 
the  two  votes  of  the  Phocians  were  transferred  to  the 
king  of  Macedon  and  his  successors.  In  this  way 
Philip  secured  that  influence  and  control  in  Grecian 
affairs  which  paved  the  way  for  the  overthrow  of 
their  liberty.  From  the  beginning  of  Philip’s  career, 
he  had  kept  steadily  in  view  the  purpose  to  secure  sov- 
ereignty over  all  Greece  and  thus  to  prepare  himself 


222 


Ancient  Empires. 


for  the  conquest  of  Persia,  which  was  the  chief  object 
in  all  his  ambitious  plans.  His  intrigues  in  Attica  and 
around  the  Peloponnesian  states  were  for  a time  coun- 
teracted by  the  great  eloquence  of  the  Athenian  De- 
mosthenes. But  Philip  continued  his  military  opera- 
tions and  had  his  powerful  agents  at  every  point  of  in- 
fluence, laboring  to  turn  the  Grecian  power  to  his 
favor.  No  open  rupture  came  between  him  and  the 
Athenians  until  he  was  engaged  in  subduing  the  Gre- 
cian cities  on  the  Thracian  coast  of  the  Hellespont. 
But  the  diplomacy  of  Philip  enabled  him  to  avoid  re- 
sults injurious  to  his  purpose. 

A little  later  Aeschines,  an  orator  second  only  to 
Demosthenes,  persuaded  the  Amphictyonic  Council  to 
appoint  Philip  as  its  agent  to  punish  Amphissa,  the 
chief  town  of  Locris,  seven  miles  west  of  Delphi, 
which  had  been  convicted  of  cultivating  the  sacred 
gardens  of  the  temple,  thus  committing  a sac- 
rilege similar  to  that  done  by  the  Phocians. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  enmesh 
himself  still  deeper  into  the  Grecian  affairs, 
Philip  passed  rapidly  with  a powerful  army  through 
Thrace.  The  time  was  now  ripe  for  him  to  throw  off 
the  mask  of  his  intentions  to  add  all  Greece  to  his 
dominions.  He  seized  and  fortified  Elateia,  capital  of 
Phocis,  which  was  conveniently  situated  for  com- 
manding the  entrance  into  Boeotia.  At  this  the  The- 
bans and  Athenians  awoke  from  their  dream  of  security 
and  saw  that  the  warnings  of  Demosthenes  were  com- 
ing true.  The  gold  of  Philip  had  won  many  people  for 
friends  in  Thebes  and  Athens,  so  that  when  the  army 


Greece. 


223 


marched  forth  to  battle  against  the  Macedonian  in- 
vaders there  were  disastrous  dissensions  in  their  ranks. 
The  spirit  of  Grecian  liberty  was  now  almost  lost. 
Philip  declared  that  the  sacred  war  against  Amphissa 
was  his  only  object  and  that  since  the  Thebans  and 
Athenians  had  become  the  allies  of  the  people  whom 
the  Amphictyonic  Council  had  commanded  him  to  pun- 
ish, he  was  justified  in  entering  Boeotia  with  all  his 
forces. 

The  hostile  armies,  nearly  equal  in  numbers,  met 
at  Chaeronea.  Philip  led  the  attack  in  person,  and 
his  son,  Alexander,  commanded  a wing  of  the  Mace- 
donian army.  There  was  no  commander  worthy  of 
the  Grecian  name  to  lead  the  Thebans  and  Athenians 
against  the  military  genius  of  Philip  and  his  son. 
Though  the  loss  of  the  Grecians  was  not  large,  the 
fortunes  of  the  day  were  plainly  against  them,  and 
this  event  destroyed  the  feeble  confederacy  which  was 
endeavoring  to  stay  the  course  of  Philip.  The  Mace- 
donian king  treated  the  Thebans  with  considerable  se- 
verity, obliging  them  to  ransom  their  prisoners  and  to 
cede  to  him  a large  portion  of  their  territory.  But  he 
treated  the  Athenians  with  great  leniency ; offering  them 
terms  of  peace  which  they  would  not  have  dared  to 
propose  to  him. 

In  this  state  of  affairs  a congress  of  all  the  Gre- 
cian states  was  called  to  meet  at  Corinth  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  a new  plan  for  the  government  of 
Greece.  It  was  so  subservient  to  the  will  of  Philip  that 
all  his  proposals  were  adopted  without  debate,  and 
here  appeared  the  predominating  ambition  of  Philip’s 


224 


Ancient  Empires. 


career.  He  proposed  to  invade  Persia,  and  war  was 
at  once  declared,  with  Philip  as  commander-in-chief 
of  all  the  Grecian  forces. 

Preparations  were  at  once  begun  for  the  crowning 
enterprise  of  his  life  when  he  was  assassinated  at  the 
marriage  feast  of  his  daughter  to  Alexander,  king  of 
Epirus,  by  a certain  Pausanias,  in  revenge  for  some 
private  wrong,  and  his  army  of  more  than  two  hun- 
dred thousand  men  was  destined  to  be  led  into  Asia 
by  his  renowned  son.  Diodorus  makes  the  following 
summary  of  Philip’s  character : “He  esteemed  mere 
physical  courage  and  physical  strength  in  the  field  as 
among  the  lowest  qualities  of  a superior  officer.  He 
set  an  almost  exclusive  value  on  military  science  as 
distinguished  from  personal  prowess,  and  not  less  on 
the  talent  of  conversing,  persuading  and  conciliating 
those  over  whom  a general  might  be  appointed  to  pre- 
side. Upon  these  qualities  he  founded  the  only  favor- 
able opinion  which  he  entertained  of  himself ; for  he 
was  wont  to  remark  that  the  merit  of  success  in  battle 
he  could  only  share  with  those  under  him,  whereas 
the  victories  he  gained  by  argument,  affability  and 
kindness  were  all  his  own.” 

Alexander  was  only  twenty  years  of  age  when  he 
succeded  his  father  to  the  throne  of  Macedon.  The 
Illyrians,  Thracians  and  other  northern  tribes  at  once 
revolted,  but  Alexander  overcame  them  with  but  little 
difficulty  in  a single  campaign.  While  absent  on  this 
expedition  the  Grecian  states,  headed  by  Athens  and 
Thebes,  arose  in  rebellion,  but  with  unparalleled  rap- 
idity Alexander  threw  his  forces  into  their  midst. 


Greece. 


225 


Thebes  was  taken  by  assault,  six  thousand  of  her  war- 
riors slain  and  thirty  thousand  prisoners  were  sold  into 
slavery.  Taking  warning  by  this  the  other  Grecian 
states  hastily  submitted,  and  the  Athenians  sent  an 
embassy  to  congratulate  Alexander  on  his  success. 
Accepting  these  excuses  in  full,  the  confederacy  which 
had  been  made  by  Philip  was  renewed  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Greece  and  Macedon  was  delegated  to  Anti- 
pater, a Macedonian  general,  while  Alexander  set  out 
for  Asia  with  thirty-five  thousand  men  on  his  amazing 
course  of  conquest.  All  his  property  at  home  was 
divided  among  his  friends,  and  when  asked  by  Perdic- 
cas  what  he  had  reserved  for  himself,  replied : “My 
hopes.”  Alexander  crossed  the  Hellespont  in  the 
spring  of  B.  C.  334.  A few  days  later  he  defeated  an 
immense  Persian  army  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Grani- 
cus,  with  a loss  of  only  one  hundred  and  fifteen  men. 
In  a short  time  he  was  undisputed  master  of  all  Asia 
Minor.  In  the  following  spring  he  marched  eastward 
through  Cappadocia  and  Cilicia.  Near  the  small  town 
of  Issus  at  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, he  met  another  Persian  army,  numbering  seven 
hundred  thousand  men  and  commanded  in  person  by 
Darius,  the  king.  As  usual  Alexander  led  his  army 
in  person  and  was  always  to  be  found  in  the  thickest 
of  the  struggle.  The  prince  was  defeated  with  a loss 
of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  men,  while  there 
seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  loss  of  Alexander  did 
not  exceed  five  hundred. 

Darius  fled  at  the  beginning  of  the  engagement 
and  his  family  became  prisoners  of  Alexander. 


226 


Ancient  Empires. 

The  conqueror  treated  them  with  princely  considera- 
tion. The  wife  of  Darius,  who  was  accounted  the  most 
beautiful  woman  in  Asia,  died  from  a sudden  illness, 
and  Alexander  gave  her  a magnificent  burial.  When 
Darius  heard  of  these  things  he  lifted  up  his  hands  to 
heaven  and  prayed  that  if  his  kingdom  were  to  pass 
from  him  it  might  be  transferred  to  Alexander. 

The  conqueror  continued  southward  through  Syria 
and  Palestine.  At  Damascus  he  captured  a vast 
amount  of  treasure  belonging  to  the  Persian  king. 
Tyre  made  a desperate  resistance,  but  was  taken  by 
storm  after  a vigorous  siege  of  seven  months,  and 
thirty  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  sold  as  slaves,  B.  C. 
332.  All  the  cities  of  Palestine  then  fell  into  his  hands 
except  Gaza,  which  made  an  obstinate  defense,  and  was 
at  last  as  severely  punished  as  Tyre. 

Alexander  then  proceeded  to  Egypt,  which  was 
eager  to  be  freed  from  the  Persian  yoke.  He  concili- 
ated the  priests  by  paying  honors  to  the  Egyptian  gods, 
and  after  founding  a city  which  he  named  Alexandria 
he  prepared  to  move  forward  to  the  heart  of  the  Per- 
sian Empire,  where  Darius  was  making  vast  prepara- 
tions to  oppose  him.  He  declared  that  the  world  could 
no  more  admit  of  two  masters  than  of  two  suns. 
Twenty  miles  from  the  town  of  Arbela,  the  Persian 
monarch  collected  the  remaining  strength  of  his  em- 
pire. His  infantry  was  composed  of  more  than  one 
million  men.  He  had  forty  thousand  cavalry,  and  fif- 
teen elephants.  Opposed  to  this  host  Alexander  had 
but  forty  thousand  foot  soldiers  and  seven  thousand 
cavalry.  However,  they  were  perfectly  disciplined 


Greece. 


227 


and  were  led  by  a general  who  had  never  known  de- 
feat. The  Persians  were  better  commanded  and  were 
more  courageous  than  at  Issus,  but  the  Macedonian 
phalanx  was  irresistible,  and  the  field  of  battle  became 
a scene  of  slaughter,  in  which  many  thousand  Persians 
were  slain.  Darius  escaped  from  the  battle  and  fled 
to  Ecbatana,  the  capital,  where  he  had  still  a power- 
ful force  equipped  for  the  contest.  Alexander  marched 
on  to  Ecbatana  and  Darius  retired  to  Bactria.  Bessus, 
governor  of  Bactria,  and  Nabarzanes,  a Persian  lord, 
formed  a conspiracy  to  seize  the  king  and  secure  the 
friendship  of  Alexander  by  betraying  their  master 
into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  Darius  heard  of  the 
treason  meditated  against  him,  but  would  not  credit  the 
report.  In  consequence  he  was  seized  by  the  traitors, 
bound  with  golden  chains  and  imprisoned  in  a covered 
cart,  with  which  they  fled  from  Bactria,  carrying  their 
king  prisoner.  Alexander  pursued  Darius  to  Bactria  and 
there  learned  that  the  Persian  monarch  was  in  the  cus- 
tody of  Bessus  and  Nabarzanes,  less  than  a day’s  march 
away.  With  his  usual  quickness  Alexander  started 
after  the  fugitives  and  soon  overtook  them.  Although 
they  were  greatly  superior  in  numbers  to  their  pur- 
suers they  immediately  fled,  and  because  Darius  re- 
fused to  follow  them,  Bessus  and  those  who  were  about 
him  discharged  their  arrows  at  the  unfortunate  prince, 
leaving  him  dying  in  the  field.  Not  knowing  whom 
the  cart  contained  the  Macedonians  passed  on  in  pur- 
suit of  the  fleeing  Persians.  Polystratus,  a Mace- 
donian, not-  long  after  coming  to  the  place  where 
Darius  had  been  abandoned,  heard  the  groans  of  a 


228 


Ancient  Empires. 


dying  man.  Approaching,  he  perceived  that  it  was 
Darius,  the  king.  The  Persian  king  had  enough 
strength  left  to  call  for  water,  which  Polystratus 
brought  him.  Turning  to  the  Macedonian,  the  king,  in 
a soft  voice  said  that  in  the  deplorable  state  to  which 
he  had  been  reduced  it  was  no  small  comfort  to  him 
that  his  last  words  would  not  be  lost.  He  asked  the 
soldier  to  give  his  thanks  to  Alexander  for  the  kind- 
ness which  had  been  shown  to  the  royal  family  and  to 
say  that  with  his  last  breath  he  besought  the  gods  to 
prosper  Alexander  and  make  him  sole  monarch  of  the 
world.  He  also  said  that  it  did  not  concern  him  so 
much  as  Alexander  to  pursue  and  bring  to  punishment 
the  treacherous  generals  who  had  thus  murdered  their 
lawful  sovereign.  Taking  Polystratus  by  the  hand  he 
said : “Give  Alexander  your  hand  as  I give  you  mine 
and  extend  him  in  my  name  the  only  pledge  I am  able 
to  give  in  this  condition  of  my  gratitude  and  affection.’  1 
Alexander,  coming  a few  moments  later,  bewailed  the 
death  of  the  king  and  caused  his  body  to  be  interred 
with  the  highest  honors. 

In  the  meantime  the  traitor  Bessus,  reduced  to  the 
last  extremities,  was  bound  by  his  own  men  and  de- 
livered into  the  hands  of  the  Macedonians.  Alexander 
gave  him  to  Oxyathres,  brother  of  Darius,  to  be  pun- 
ished as  Oxyathres  might  think  proper. 

With  these  victories  of  Alexander,  came  to  an  end, 
B.  C.  329,  the  ancient  empire  of  Persia,  which,  found- 
ed, by  Cyrus,  had  existed  two  hundred  and  nine  years. 


THE  ROMANS. 


BUILDING  OF  ROME. 

The  peninsula  of  Italy  had  been  gradually  peopled 
by  settlers  from  various  countries,  chiefly  Greeks, 
Gauls  and  also,  if  we  may  believe  the  Latin  historians 
and  poets,  by  Trojans  led  by  Aeneas.  Among  the  de- 
scendants of  the  latter  were  reckoned  the  kings  of 
Alba,  in  the  province  of  Latium.  One  of  them,  called 
Procas,  had  two  sons,  Numitor  and  Amulius,  the  first 
of  whom  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne ; but  Amu- 
lius, having  obtained  a strong  party,  dethroned  his 
brother  and  reduced  him  to  the  condition  of  a private 
citizen.  The  more  surely  to  deprive  him  of  all  hope  of 
ever  being  re-established,  he  put  to  death  Egestus  or 
Lausus,  the  son  of  this  unfortunate  prince,  and  com- 
pelled Ilia  or  Rhea  Sylvia,  his  daughter,  to  become  a 
vestal  virgin,  that  is,  a priestess  of  the  heathen  goddess 
Vesta,  in  which  state  of  life  it  was  forbidden  to  marry. 

All  these  precautions  of  the  usurper  proved  useless. 
Rhea  Sylvia,  having  secretly  married,  gave  birth  to 
twin  brothers,  who  were  called  Romulus  and  Remus. 
Amulius,  it  is  true,  in  compliance  with  his  former 
scheme  of  cruel  policy,  gave  orders  that  they  should 
be  drowned  in  the  Tiber;  but  the  helpless  infants  were 
saved  through  the  commiseration  of  Faustulus,  one  of 
the  royal  shepherds,  and  nursed  in  his  family.  When 
they  had  grown  up  to  adolescence,  he  acquainted  them 
with  the  secret  of  their  birth.  They  immediately  as- 


(229) 


230 


Ancient  Empires. 


sembled  a band  of  valiant  shepherds  and  hunters  like 
themselves,  added  to  them  a body  of  their  grand- 
father’s adherents,  and  marching  at  their  head  against 
the  usurper,  slew  him  in  his  very  palace,  and  replaced 
Numitor  on  the  throne. 

After  this  bold  achievement,  the  two  brothers  re- 
solved to  build  a city  on  the  same  spot  on  which  they 
had  been  rescued  from  death,  and  so  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  their  dangers  and  their  deliverance.  They 
began  speedily  to  accomplish  their  design ; but  jealousy 
set  them  at  variance  with  each  other  before  its  full 
execution.  Having  an  equal  right  and  urged  on  by 
equal  ambition,  they  soon  formed  parties  against  each 
other,  to  decide  who  should  possess  the  principal 
authority  in  their  rising  state ; a violent  contest  arose, 
and  the  result  of  this  unnatural  struggle  was  the  death 
of  Remus,  who  received  a mortal  wound,  perhaps  from 
the  hand  of  Romulus  himself. 

Freed  from  a rival,  but  probably  guilty  of  fratricide, 
the  surviving  brother  completed  the  building  of  the 
new  city,  and  gave  to  it  the  name  of  Rome.  To  supply 
it  with  a sufficient  number  of  inhabitants,  he  made  it 
an  asylum  for  every  one  whom  guilt  or  misfortune 
might  compel  to  fly  from  his  native  country.  In  this 
manner,  there  were  soon  assembled  around  him  troops 
of  insolvent  debtors,  fugitive  slaves,  discontented  peo- 
ple, and  friends  of  novelty.  Such  were  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Rome ; and  this  motley  band  of  adven- 
turers laid  the  foundation  of  an  empire  which  was  one 
day  to  conquer  the  world,  to  astonish  posterity  at  the 
mere  recital  of  its  stupendous  achievements,  and  to 


The  Romans. 


231 


produce  a countless  number  of  profound  politicians, 
able  generals,  accomplished  orators  and  scholars,  and 
great  men  of  every  description. 

All  the  circumstances  just  related  are  not  equally 
certain ; but  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
principal  facts.  Rome  was  built,  according  to  Varro, 
the  four  hundred  and  thirty-first  year  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Troy,  and  the  third  year  of  the  sixth  Olympiad ; 
which  corresponds  to  the  year  B.  C.  753.  Some,  it 
is  true,  place  the  foundation  of  the  city  a few  years 
later ; yet  Varro’s  opinion  is  more  commonly  adopted. 

Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  the  people  into 
three  tribes,  each  consisting  of  ten  curiae;  and  also 
into  two  orders  of  patricians  and  plebeians.  The 
senate  consisted  of  one  hundred  of  the  principal  citi- 
zens ; it  was  afterwards  increased  to  two  hundred 
members.  Besides  a guard  of  three  hundred  men  to 
attend  his  person,  the  king  was  always  preceded  by 
twelve  lictors,  armed  with  axes  bound  up  in  a bundle 
of  rods ; the  duty  of  the  lictors  was  to  execute  the  laws. 
These  wise  regulations  contributed  daily  to  increase 
the  strength  of  the  new  city ; multitudes  flocked  to  it 
from  the  adjacent  towns,  and  women  only  were  wanted 
to  confirm  its  growing  prosperity.  Romulus,  in  order 
to  supply  this  deficiency,  invited  the  Sabines,  a neigh- 
boring nation,  to  a festival  in  honor  of  Neptune;  and 
while  the  strangers  were  intent  upon  the  spectacle,  a 
number  of  the  Roman  youths  rushed  in  among  them, 
and  seized  the  youngest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
women,  and  carried  them  off  by  violence. 

A sanguinary  war  ensued,  which  had  brought  the 


232 


Ancient  Empires. 


city  almost  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  when  an  accommoda- 
tion was  happily  effected  through  the  interposition  of 
the  Sabine  women  who  had  been  carried  off  by  the 
Romans.  Romulus  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  and 
after  his  death  received  divine  honors,  under  the  name 
of  Quirinus. 

On  the  death  of  Romulus,  Numa  Pompilius,  a native 
of  Cures,  a Sabine  city,  was  elected  the  second  king 
of  Rome.  He  softened  the  fierce  and  warlike  disposi- 
tion of  the  Romans,  by  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  inculcating  obedience  to  the  laws  and  respect  for 
religion.  He  built  the  temple  of  Janus,  which  was  to 
be  open  during  war  and  shut  in  time  of  peace.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  after  a reign  of  forty-three 
years. 

Tullus  Hostilius  was  the  third  king  of  Rome.  His 
reign  is  memorable  for  the  combat  between  the  Horatii 
and  Curiatii,  which  is  said  to  have  taken  place  during 
a war  against  the  Albans.  There  were,  at  the  time, 
in  each  army,  three  brothers  of  one  birth ; those  of  the 
Romans  called  the  Horatii,  and  those  of  the  Albans, 
the  Curiatti,  all  six  remarkable  for  their  strength,  ac- 
tivity, and  courage ; to  these  it  was  resolved  to  commit 
the  fate  of  the  two  parties.  Finally,  the  champions 
met  in  combat ; the  contest  was  for  some  time  obstinate 
and  doubtful ; victory  at  length  declared  in  favor  of 
Rome ; the  three  Curiatii  were  slain,  and  only  one  of 
the  Horatii  survived.  By  this  victory  the  Romans 
became  masters  of  Alba.  Hostilius  died  after  a reign 
of  thirty-two  years. 

After  the  death  of  the  late  monarch,  Ancus  Marcius, 


The  Eomans. 


233 


the  grandson  of  Numa,  was  elected  the  fourth  king  of 
Rome.  He  conquered  the  Latins,  and  suppressed  the 
insurrections  of  the  Vientes,  Fidinates  and  Volsci. 
But  his  victories  over  his  enemies  were  far  less  im- 
portant than  his  exertions  in  fortifying  and  embellish- 
ing the  city ; he  erected  a prison  for  malefactors,  and 
built  the  port  of  Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 
Ancus  died  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his  reign. 

Tarquinius  Priscus,  or  Tarquin  the  elder,  the  son 
of  a merchant  of  Corinth,  next  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
His  reign  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  his  triumph  over 
the  Sabines  and  Latins,  and  by  the  embellishment  of 
the  city  with  works  of  utility  and  magnificence ; he 
built  the  walls  of  hewn  stone,  erected  the  circus,  found- 
ed the  capitol,  and  constructed  the  sewers  or  aqueducts 
for  the  purpose  of  draining  the  city  of  the  rubbish  and 
superfluous  waters.  Tarquin  was  assassinated  in  the 
fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  thirty-eighth  of 
his  reign.  • 

Servius  Tullius,  who  was  the  son  of  a female  slave, 
and  son-in-law  of  the  late  monarch,  secured  his  elec- 
tion to  the  throne  through  the  intrigues  of  Tanaquil, 
his  mother-in-law.  In  order  to  determine  the  increase 
or  diminution  of  his  subjects,  he  instituted  the  census, 
by  which,  at  the  end  of  every  fifth  year,  the  names 
of  citizens,  number  of  dwellings  and  amount  of  prop- 
erty was  ascertained.  An  expiatory  sacrifice,  called 
a “lustrum,”  was  made  ;•  the  period  of  five  years  thus 
came  to  be  called  a lustrum. 

From  another  incident  came  “the  Olympiad.”  It 
was  a period  of  four  complete  years,  so  called  from  the 


234 


Ancient  Empires. 


Olympic  games,  which  the  Greeks  celebrated  at  the  end 
of  every  four  years  at  Olympia  or  Pisa,  a city  of 
Peloponnesus,  in  honor  of  Jupiter  Olympian.  These 
games,  instituted  by  Hercules,  were  after  some  inter- 
ruption re-established  by  Iphitus  (B.  C.  884).  How- 
ever, their  regular  return  was  not  yet  adopted  as  a sys- 
tem of  chronology  by  the  Greek  historians ; the  first 
Olympiad  mentioned  by  them  in  the  computation  of 
time,  was  that  in  which  Coroebus  won  the  prize  over 
all  his  competitors  (B.  C.  776). 

Servius  had  two  daughters,  of  whom  the  elder  was 
gentle  and  submissive,  and  the  younger  haughty  and 
ambitious.  In  order  to  secure  the  throne,  he  married 
them  to  the  two  sons  of  Tarquin,  the  late  king,  whose 
names  were  Tarquin  and  Aruns,  and  whose  different 
dispositions  corresponded  to  those  of  his  daughters. 
But  he  took  care  to  cross  their  tempers  by  giving  the 
elder  to  Tarquin,  who  was  violent,  and  the  younger, 
Tullia,  to  Aruns,  who  was  mild,  hoping  they  would 
correct  each  other’s  defects.  But  Tarquin  and  Tullia 
soon  murdered  their  consorts,  married  each  other,  and 
then  caused  Servius  to  be  assassinated.  Tarquin 
usurped  the  throne,  and  Tullia,  in  her  eagerness  to 
salute  him  as  king,  is  said  to  have  driven  her  chariot 
over  the  dead  body  of  her  father. 

Tarquin,  surnamed  the  proud,  (in  Latin,  Tarquinius 
Superbus),  began  his  reign  by  putting  to  death  the 
chief  senators,  and  governing  in  the  most  arbitrary 
manner ; but,  by  his  tyranny  and  cruelty,  he  soon  dis- 
gusted all  classes  of  his  subjects.  Sextus,  his  son, 
having  entered  the  house  of  Collatings,  a nephew  of 


The  Romans. 


235 


Tarquin,  under  the  mask  of  friendship,  did  violence 
to  his  wife  Lucretia,  a woman  distinguished  for  her 
beauty  and  domestic  virtues.  The  unhappy  Lucretia 
immediately  sent  for  her  husband  and  father,  who 
came,  bringing  with  them  Junius  Brutus,  a grandson 
of  Tarquin  the  Elder,  and  other  friends.  To  them  she 
related  her  mournful  story,  enjoining  upon  them  to 
avenge  her  injury;  and,  being  unable  to  survive  her 
dishonor,  plunged  a dagger  into  her  bosom,  and  ex- 
pired. 

Her  corpse  was  carried  to  the  public  square ; the  ven- 
geance of  the  people  was  roused ; and,  by  the  strenu- 
ous exertions  of  Brutus,  the  senate  pronounced  a sen- 
tence of  perpetual  banishment  agaist  Tarquin  and  his 
family.  The  tyrant  being  expelled  from  his  capital, 
and  abandoned  by  his  army,  was  never  able  to  gain  a 
readmission  into  the  city;  and  the  regal  government 
was  abolished,  after  having  continued  244  years. 

REPUBLICAN  ROME. 

The  regal  authority  having  been  abolished,  a re- 
publican form  of  government  was  established  on  its 
ruins.  The  supreme  power  was  still  reserved  to  the 
senate  and  people,  but  instead  of  a king,  two  magis- 
trates, called  consuls,  were  annually  chosen,  with  all 
authority,  privileges,  and  ensigns  of  royalty.  Brutus, 
the  deliverer  of  his  country,  and  Collatinus,  the  hus- 
band of  Lucretia,  were  chosen  the  first  consuls  of 
Rome. 

But  scarcely  had  the  new  republic  began  to  exist, 
when  a conspiracy  was  formed  for  its  destruction. 


236 


Ancient  Empires. 


Some  young  men  of  the  principal  families  of  the  state, 
who  had  been  educated  about  the  king,  and  had  shared 
in  all  the  luxuries  and  pleasures  of  the  court,  formed 
a party  in  Rome  in  favor  of  Tarquin,  and  undertook 
to  re-establish  the  monarchy.  Their  design  was  for- 
tunately discovered  before  it  could  be  carried  into 
execution ; and,  surprising  as  it  may  appear,  the  two 
sons  of  Brutus  were  found  among  the  number  of  the 
conspirators.  Few  situations  could  be  more  affecting 
than  that  of  Brutus — a father  and  a judge,  impelled 
by  justice  to  condemn,  by  nature  to  spare,  the  children 
he  loved. 

Being  brought  to  trial  before  him,  they  were  con- 
demned to  be  beheaded  in  his  presence,  while  the 
father  beheld  the  sad  spectacle  with  unaltered  coun- 
tenance. He  ceased  to  be  a father,  as  it  has  been  beau- 
tifully observed,  that  he  might  execute  the  duties  of  the 
consul,  and  chose  to  live  bereft  of  his  children,  rather 
than  to  neglect  the  public  punishment  of  crime. 

Dangers  from  domestic  disorders  were  soon  added 
to  those  of  war.  Tarquin  had  induced  the  Latins  to 
enlist  in  his  cause,  and  approached  the  city  with  his 
army.  The  plebeians,  being  poor  and  oppressed  with 
debt,  complained  of  their  grievances,  and  refused  to 
aid  in  repelling  the  enemy,  unless  the  senate  would 
grant  them  relief,  by  remitting  their  debts  to  the  rich. 
The  consuls  found  their  authority  of  no  avail ; as  the 
Valerian  law  gave  to  any  condemned  citizen  the  right 
of  appealing  to  the  people. 

An  extraordinary  measure  was  now  necessary ; and 
a new  magistrate  was  created,  styled  dictator,  who  was 


The  Romans. 


237 


to  continue  in  office  only  as  long  as  the  danger  of  the 
state  required,  never  exceeding  the  space  of  six  months, 
and  was  vested  with  absolute  power.  He  was  appointed 
only  in  cases  of  public  exigency,  when  quick  and  de- 
cisive measures  were  necessary.  He  had  authority  to 
make  peace  and  war,  to  levy  taxes,  to  appoint  all  public 
officers,  and  to  dispense  with  the  laws,  without  con- 
sulting the  senate  or  people.  Titus  Lartius,  one  of 
the  consuls,  being  elevated  to  this  high  office,  raised  a 
large  army,  and,  by  his  firmness  and  moderation,  hav- 
ing restored  tranquillity,  resigned  the  dictatorship. 
War  having  been  again  excited  by  the  Tarquins, 
Pothumius  was  appointed  dictator;  the  Romans  were 
completely  victorious,  and  the  sons  of  Tarquin  were 
slain. 

After  the  death  of  the  Tarquins,  and  the  return  of 
peace,  Rome  was  disturbed  by  domestic  dissensions, 
and  the  dispute  between  the  creditors  and  debtors  was 
again  revived.  On  an  alarm  of  war,  the  plebeians  re- 
fused to  take  up  arms  in  defense  of  the  republic. 
Their  language  was,  “Of  what  consequence  is  it  to 
us  whether  our  chains  are  forged  by  our  enemies  or 
our  fellow-citizens.  Let  the  patricians,  since  they 
alone  have  the  reward  of  victories,  encounter  the 
dangers  of  war.”  At  length,  finding  no  relief  from 
their  oppressions,  the  whole  army  abandoned  their 
officers,  withdrew  from  Rome,  and  encamped  upon 
Mons  Sacer,  about  three  miles  from  the  city.  Here 
they  were  soon  joined  by  the  greater  part  of  the  people. 

This  resolute  procedure  had  the  desired  effect.  The 
senate,  being  alarmed,  deputed  ten  of  the  most  respect- 


238 


Ancient  Empires. 


able  of  their  order,  with  authority  to  grant  a redress. 
Menenius  Agrippa,  one  of  the  senators,  is  said  to  have 
related,  in  his  speech  to  the  people,  with  great  effect, 
the  celebrated  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  members.  A 
reconciliation  was  brought  about.  The  plebeians  were 
freed  from  debt,  and  they  were  allowed  to  choose  from 
their  own  order  a number  of  magistrates,  styled  tri- 
bunes, who  were  to  have  a final  veto  on  any  legislation 
deemed  injurious  to  them. 

Those  magistrates  were  annually  elected ; their  num- 
ber, which  at  first  was  five,  afterwards  increased  to  ten. 
By  this  measure  the  aristocracy  was  restrained  and  the 
fury  of  the  populace  checked.  At  the  same  time  two 
magistrates,  styled  aediles,  were  appointed,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  assist  the  tribunes  and  take  charge  of  the  pub- 
lic buildings. 

During  the  late  separation,  agriculture  having  been 
neglected,  a famine  was  the  consequence  the  following 
season;  but  the  timely  arrival  of  a large  quantity  of 
corn  from  Sicily  prevented  the  evil  consequences  that 
were  likely  to  ensue.  At  this  time  the  resentment  of 
the  people  was  strongly  excited  against  Coriolanus, 
who  insisted  that  the  corn  should  not  be  distributed 
until  the  grievances  of  the  senate  were  removed ; for 
which  proposition  he  was  summoned  by  the  tribunes 
to  a trial  before  the  people,  and  was  condemned  to 
perpetual  banishment.  He  retired  to  the  Volsci,  and 
being  appointed  to  the  command  of  their  army,  he 
invaded  the  Roman  territories  and  carried  his  devasta- 
tions to  the  very  walls  of  the  city ; but  he  was  at  length 
prevailed  upon,  by  the  earnest  entreaties  of  his  mother 
and  his  wife,  to  withdraw  his  army. 


The  Romans. 


239 


The  proposal  of  the  Agrarian  law,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  division  of  the  land  obtained  by  conquest 
equally  among  the  people,  proved  a source  of  discord 
between  the  plebeians  and  patricians ; while  the  former 
repeatedly  urged  the  measure,  the  latter  as  often  stren- 
uously opposed  the  design;  the  state  was  in  conse- 
quence thrown  into  violent  dissensions.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  tribune,  Volero,  a law  was  passed  that 
the  election  of  the  tribunes  should  be  made  in  the 
comitia,  or  public  meetings  of  the  people.  By  this  law 
the  supreme  authority  was  taken  from  the  patricians 
and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  plebeians,  and  the 
Roman  government  became  a democracy. 

During  the  dissensions  which  grew  out  of  the  prop- 
osition for  the  Agrarian  law,  Quinctius  Cincinnatus, 
a man  eminent  for  his  wisdom  and  virtue,  and  who  had 
retired  from  public  life,  was  created  dictator ; but 
scarcely  had  he  restored  tranquillity  to  the  state  and 
resigned  his  office,  than  new  dangers  obliged  him  a 
second  time  to  resume  it.  The  Aequi,  having  invaded 
the  territory  of  the  Romans,  enclosed  the  army  of  the 
consul  Minutius,  who  had  been  sent  to  oppose  them, 
in  a defile  between  two  mountains,  from  which  there 
was  no  egress.  Cincinnatus,  having  raised  another 
army,  placed  himself  at  its  head,  and  having  defeated 
the  Aequi,  and  having  rescued  the  army  of  the  consul 
from  their  perilous  situation,  returned  in  triumph  to 
the  city,  and  after  holding  the  high  office  of  dictator 
only  for  the  space  of  fourteen  days,  he  resigned  its 
honors  and  again  retired  to  labor  on  his  farm. 

The  Romans  having  no  body  of  written  laws,  and 


240 


Ancient  Empires. 


justice  being  solely  in  the  hands  of  the  rulers,  who 
often  decided  oppressively,  three  commissioners  were, 
therefore,  sent  to  Greece,  in  order  to  procure  the  laws 
of  Solon,  and  such  others  as  were  deemed  useful  in 
forming  a suitable  code. 

Upon  the  return  of  the  commissioners,  ten  of  the 
principal  senators,  styled  decemvirs,  were  appointed 
to  disgest  a body  of  laws,  and  put  them  in  execu- 
tion for  one  year.  This  was  the  origin  of  those  cele- 
brated statutes  known  by  the  name  of  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables,  which  formed  the  basis  of  Roman 
jurisprudence,  and  continued  to  be  of  the  highest  au- 
thority in  the  most  flourishing  times  of  the  republic. 

The  decemvirs  were  invested  with  absolute  power ; 
and  during  the  time  for  which  they  were  appointed,  all 
other  magistrates  were  suspended.  Each  decemvir,  by 
turn,  presided  for  a day,  and  had  the  sovereign  author- 
ity, with  its  insignia  and  fasces.  They  governed  with 
so  much  moderation  and  equity  during  the  first  year, 
that  they  obtained  a new  appointment ; but  they  soon 
became  tyrannical ; and  two  flagrant  abuses  of  power 
by  Appius  Claudius,  the  leading  member  of  their  body, 
caused  a speedy  termination  of  the  office. 

One  of  these  crimes  was  his  procuring  the  assassin- 
ation of  Sicinius  Dentatus,  a Roman  tribune,  who,  on 
account  of  his  extraordinary  valor  and  exploits,  was 
styled  the  Roman  Achilles ; the  other  was  his  villany 
with  regard  to  Virginia,  a beautiful  young  maiden, 
who  had  been  betrothed  to  Icilius,  formerly  a tribune. 
Having  seen  her  as  she  was  going  to  a public  school, 
and  being  inflamed  with  a lawless  passion,  he  employed 


The  Romans. 


241 


a profligate  dependent  to  claim  her  as  his  own  property, 
on  the  pretence  of  her  being  the  daughter  of  one  of 
his  female  slaves. 

He  caused  the  claim  to  be  brought  for  trial  before 
himself,  and  pronounced  an  infamous  decree,  by  which 
the  innocent  victim  was  torn  from  her  parents,  and 
placed  within  his  own  power.  Virginius,  her  father, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  dishonor  of  his  daughter, 
plunged  a dagger  into  her  heart.  Brandishing  in  his 
hand  the  bloody  weapon,  he  exclaimed,  “By  this  blood, 
Appius,  I devote  thy  head  to  the  infernal  gods,”  and 
running  wildly  through  the  city,  he  roused  the  people 
to  vengeance.  Appius  soon  after  died  in  prison  by  his 
own  hand ; the  other  decemvirs  went  into  exile ; the 
decemvirate,  after  having  continued  for  three  years, 
was  abolished ; and  the  consuls  were  restored. 

In  order  to  lighten  the  weight  of  their  duties,  two 
new  magistrates  were  created,  styled  censors,  to  be 
chosen  every  fifth  year.  Their  duty  was  to  estimate 
the  number  and  the  estates  of  the  people,  to  distribute 
them  into  their  proper  classes,  to  inspect  the  morals 
and  manners  of  their  fellow-citizens.  The  office  was 
one  of  great  dignity  and  importance,  and  was  exercised 
for  nearly  one  hundred  years  by  the  patricians,  after- 
wards by  men  of  consular  dignity,  and  finally  by  the 
emperors. 

The  senate,  in  order  to  avoid  the  evils  which  fre- 
quently arose  from  the  people’s  refusing  to  enlist  in  the 
army,  adopted  the  wise  expedient  of  giving  a regular 
pay  to  the  troops.  From  this  period,  the  Roman  system 
of  war  assumed  a new  aspect.  The  senate  had  the 


242 


Ancient  Empires. 


army  under  its  immediate  control ; the  enterprises  of 
the  republic  were  more  extensive,  and  its  success  more 
signal  and  important.  As  the  art  of  war  now  became 
a profession,  instead  of  an  occasional  employment,  it 
was  in  consequence  greatly  improved,  and  from  this 
period  the  Roman  territory  began  rapidly  to  extend. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Veii  had  repeatedly 
committed  depredations  on  the  Roman  territories ; it 
was  at  length  decreed  by  the  Roman  senate,  that  Veii 
should  be  destroyed,  whatever  it  might  cost.  Accord- 
ingly, a siege  was  commenced,  which  continued  with 
various  success  for  ten  years.  At  length,  in  order  to 
give  greater  vigor  to  the  operations,  Camillus  was 
created  dictator,  and  to  him  was  entrusted  the  sole 
management  of  the  long  protracted  war.  He  caused 
a passage  to  be  opened  under  ground  which  led  into 
the  very  citadel,  and  giving  his  men  directions  how 
to  enter  the  breach,  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed. 
Camillus  was  honored  with  a splendid  triumph,  in 
which  his  chariot  was  drawn  by  four  white  horses ; 
but  being  afterwards  accused  of  having  appropriated 
a part  of  the  plunder  of  Veii  to  his  own  use,  indignant 
at  the  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  he  went  into  vol- 
untary banishment. 

ROME  TAKEN  BY  THE  GAULS. B.  C.  39O. 

Camillus  had  scarcely  gone  into  exile,  when  the  in- 
habitants of  Clusium,  an  Etrurian  city,  being  besieged 
by  a formidable  army  of  Gauls,  applied  to  the  Romans 
for  succor.  Instead  of  troops,  ambassadors  were 
dispatched  from  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  inter- 
ceding with  the  Gauls  in  behalf  of  the  be- 


The  Romans. 


248 


sieged.  But  these  deputies,  all  of  them  young 
men  of  a warlike  disposition,  not  satisfied  with  their 
pacific  commission,  began  to  fight  on  the  side  of  the 
Clusians,  and  in  a sally  killed  a Gaulish  chieftain.  The 
Gauls  were  highly  exasperated  by  this  violation  of 
professed  neutrality;  not  receiving  satisfaction,  they 
abandoned  the  siege  of  Clusium,  and  marched  toward 
Rome  with  threats  of  vengeance.  They  met  the  Roman 
army,  which  consisted  of  forty  thousand  men,  near  the 
small  river  Allia.  This  army,  commanded  by  unskillful 
generals,  and  terrified  by  the  yells,  the  stature  and  the 
multitude  of  these  new  foes,  whose  number  amounted 
to  more  than  seventy  thousand,  did  not  sustain  even 
their  first  attack.  Both  officers  and  soldiers  fled  in 
every  direction.  It  was  rather  a rout  than  a combat ; 
a rout  not  less  disastrous  than  shameful,  on  account 
of  the  great  slaughter  which  was  made  of  the  fugi- 
tives. 

The  victorious  Gauls,  instead  of  closely  pursuing 
their  advantage,  spent  three  days  in  gathering  the 
spoils  and  taking  unnecessary  precautions  against  im- 
aginary dangers.  This  delay  saved  the  Roman  power 
from  utter  destruction.  Those  who  were  able  to  fight 
had  time  to  withdraw  into  the  citadel,  with  a supply  of 
arms  and  provisions ; others  made  their  escape  to  the 
neighboring  towns ; and  there  remained  in  Rome  only 
eighty  senators  or  patricians,  far  advanced  in  years, 
who  devoted  themselves  as  so  many  victims  to  be  im- 
molated for  their  country,  and  whom,  in  fact,  the  Gauls 
put  to  the  sword,  when  they  entered  the  city.  After- 
wards, these  barbarians  fired  the  houses,  and  reduced 


244  Ancient  Empires. 

them  to  ashes ; finally,  they  endeavored  to  storm  the 
citadel. 

Being  repulsed  in  the  first  assault,  they  made  a 
second  attack  during  the  night,  and  were  so  far  suc- 
cessful that  some  of  their  number  reached  the  top  of 
the  battlements,  without  being  heard  by  the  sentinels, 
or  even  by  the  watch-dogs.  Had  the  Gauls  remained 
undiscovered  one  moment  longer,  the  ruin  of  the 
Romans  might  then  have  been  complete.  In  this  ex- 
treme danger,  the  sudden  gabbling  of  some  geese  and 
the  flapping  of  their  wings  awoke  Manlius,  a patrician 
of  consular  dignity  and  extraordinary  courage ; in  an 
instant  he  sounded  the  alarm,  ran  to  the  rampart,  and 
drove  off  the  first  barbarians  whom  he  found  ready  to 
enter  the  citadel.  The  other  Romans  arrived,  and 
easily  overthrew  the  rest  of  the  assailants,  by  precipi- 
tating them  from  the  rock  on  which  the  citadel  was 
built  into  the  precipice  below. 

Still  this  transient  advantage  could  not  have  deliver- 
ed the  country  from  its  invaders,  without  the  patriotic 
exertions  of  Camillus.  This  great  man,  now  an  exile, 
but  generously  prevailing  upon  himself  to  overcome 
his  resentment  and  overlook  the  wrongs  which  he  had 
suffered,  hastened  to  assemble  troops,  whether  Romans 
or  allies,  to  fight  the  invaders.  He  came  to  the  relief 
of  the  capitol  at  a very  critical  moment.  The  besieged, 
much  weakened  by  famine,  the  natural  consequence  of 
a blockade  of  six  months,  had  finally  agreed  to  treat 
with  the  Gauls,  and  were  actually  about  to  pay  a con- 
siderable sum  for  the  preservation  of  their  liberty.  Be- 
fore this  transaction  was  completed,  Camillus  arrived, 


The  Romans. 


245 


and  perceiving  the  present  disgraceful  state  of  things, 
cried  out  that  by  steel  alone,  and  not  by  gold,  was 
Rome  to  be  recovered  from  the  hands  of  its  enemies. 
He  then  charged  with  great  vigor  the  astonished  Gauls, 
obliged  them  to  abandon  their  prey,  and  shortly  after, 
in  a decisive  battle  fought  at  a short  distance  from 
Rome,  amply  revenged  the  disaster  that  his  country- 
men had  suffered  on  the  banks  of  the  Allia. 

By  this  sudden  change  of  fortune,  the  Roman  power, 
which  appeared  on  the  point  of  being  extinguished 
forever,  was  revived  and  Camillus  received  the  grati- 
tude and  praise  he  deserved  as  being  the  savior  of  his 
people,  and  the  second  founder  of  Rome.  The  citizens 
had  decided  to  remove  to  Veii,  but  he  succeeded  in 
having  them  rebuild  the  city  of  Rome. 

Manlius  was  liberally  rewarded  for  his  heroism ; but 
at  length,  envying  the  fame  of  Camillus,  he  abandoned 
himself  to  ambitious  views ; and  being  accused  of  aim- 
ing at  sovereign  power,  he  was  sentenced  to  be  thrown 
headlong  from  the  Tarpeian  rock.  Thus  the  place, 
which  had  been  the  theater  of  his  glory,  became  that 
of  his  punishment  and  infamy. 

The  Romans  next  turned  their  arms  against  the 
Samnites,  a race  of  hardy  mountaineers,  inhabiting 
an  extensive  tract  in  the  southern  part  of  Italy.  This 
contest  lasted  upwards  of  50  years,  and  was  carried  on 
by  the  Samnites  with  great  valor  and  skill,  though 
they  were  finally  subdued.  They  defeated  the  Romans 
at  Caudinae  Furculse,  near  Caudium,  and  made  their 
whole  army  pass  under  the  yoke,  formed  by  two  spears 
set  upright,  and  a third  bound  across  them.  This 


246 


Ancient  Empires. 


roused  the  spirit  of  revenge  on  the  part  of  the  Romans, 
who  appointed  Papirius  Cursor  dictator ; and  the  next 
year,  under  his  command,  they  gained  a victory  over 
the  Samnites,  compelling  them,  in  turn,  to  undergo  the 
same  disgrace  at  Luceria;  and  by  the  exertions  of 
Fabius  Maximus  and  Decius,  they  were  finally  sub- 
jugated. 

During  the  consulship  of  Manlius  Torquatus,  a war 
broke  out  between  the  Romans  and  Latins.  In  order 
to  prevent  confusion  in  time  of  action  by  reason  of  the 
similarity  of  the  two  nations,  Manlius  issued  orders 
that  death  should  be  inflicted  on  any  one  who  should 
leave  his  ranks.  When  the  two  armies  were  drawn 
out  for  battle,  Metius,  a Latin  commander,  challenged 
to  single  combat  any  Roman  knight.  Titus  Manlius, 
the  son  of  the  consul,  accepted  the  challenge,  and  slew 
his  adversary ; and  for  this  act  he  was  beheaded  by  the 
stern  order  of  his  father.  The  Latins  were  vanquished, 
and_  submitted  to  the  Romans. 

The  Tarentines,  who  were  the  allies  of  the  Samnites, 
sought  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  the  greatest 
general  of  his  age.  He  landed  at  Tarentum  with  an 
army  of  30,000  men,  and  twenty  elephants ; and  the 
Romans,  under  the  command  of  the  consul  Lsevinus, 
not  being  accustomed  to  the  mode  of  fighting  with 
elephants,  were  at  first  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  15,000 
men ; that  of  Pyrrhus  was  nearly  as  great ; and  he  was 
heard  to  confess  that  another  such  victory  would  com- 
pel him  to  return  to  Epirus.  His  admiration  of  the 
heroism  of  his  enemy  drew  from  him  the  celebrated 
exclamation:  “O,  with  what  ease  could  I conquer  the 


The  Romans. 


247 


world,  had  I the  Romans  for  soldiers,  or  had  they  me 
for  their  king!” 

In  the  progress  of  the  war,  Fabricius,  who  after- 
wards commanded  the  Roman  army,  received  a letter 
from  the  physician  of  Pyrrhus,  importing  that  for  a 
proper  reward  he  would  poison  the  king.  Fabricius, 
indignant  at  so  base  a proposal,  gave  immediate  in- 
formation of  it  to  Pyrrhus,  who,  admiring  the  gener- 
osity of  his  enemy,  exclaimed : “It  is  easier  to  turn  the 
sun  from  his  course,  than  Fabricius  from  the  path  of 
honor" — and  that  he  might  not  be  outdone  in  mag- 
nanimity, he  released  all  his  Roman  prisoners  without 
ransom. 

Pyrrhus  then  withdrew  his  army  from  Italy,  in  order 
to  assist  the  Sicilians  against  the  Carthagenians ; but  he 
again  returned,  and  made  a last  effort  near  Beneven- 
tum,  where  he  was  totally  defeated  by  Curius  Denta- 
tus.  He  then  withdrew  to  his  own  dominions,  and  the 
Romans,  after  having  gained  further  victories  over  the 
Samnites,  became  masters  of  all  Lower  Italy. 

THE  PUNIC  WARS. 

The  triumph  which  the  Romans  had  obtained  over 
Pyrrhus  seemed  to  give  assurance  of  success  in  any 
enterprise  in  which  they  should  engage.  The  Mamer- 
tines,  a people  of  Campania,  obtained  aid  from  the 
Romans  in  an  unjustifiable  attempt  which  they  made 
to  seize  Messina,  a Sicilian  town  allied  to  Syracuse. 
The  Syracusans,  at  first,  assisted  by  the  Carthagenians, 
opposed  this  invasion ; but  the  former,  more  alarmed 
by  the  ambitious  encroachments  of  the  Carthagenians 
on  Sicily,  soon  repented  of  this  rash  alliance,  and  joined 


248 


Ancient  Empires. 


the  Romans  in  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  Cartha- 
genians  entirely  from  the  island.  In  fact,  the  Sicilians 
seem  to  have  had  only  the  desperate  choice  of  final  sub- 
mission either  to  Rome  or  Carthage.  They  chose  the 
former,  as  the  alternative  least  dishonorable ; the 
Romans  had  ever  been  their  friends,  the  Carthagenians 
their  enemies. 

Agrigentum,  possessed  by  the  Carthagenians,  was 
taken,  after  a long  siege,  by  the  joint  forces  of  Rome 
and  Syracuse,  and  a Roman  fleet,  the  first  they  ever 
had,  and  equipped  in  a few  weeks,  gained  a complete 
victory  over  that  of  Carthage,  at  this  time  the  greatest 
maritime  power  in  the  world,  260  B.  C.  These  suc- 
cesses were  followed  by  the  reduction  of  Corsica  and 
Sardinia.  In  a second  naval  engagement,  the  Romans 
took  from  the  Carthagenians  sixty  of  their  ships  of 
war,  and  now  resolutely  prepared  for  the  invasion  of 
Africa.  The  consul  Regulus  commanded  the  expedi- 
tion. He  advanced  to  the  gates  of  Carthage ; and  such 
was  the  general  consternation,  that  the  enemy  proposed 
a capitulation.  Inspirited,  however,  by  a timely  aid 
of  Greek  troops  under  Xantippus,  the  Carthagenians 
made  a desperate  effort,  and  defeating  the  Roman 
army,  made  Regulus  their  prisoner.  But  repeatedly 
defeated  in  Sicily,  they  were  at  length  seriously  desir- 
ous of  a peace;  and  the  Roman  general  was  sent  with 
their  ambassadors  to  Rome  to  aid  the  negotiation, 
under  a solmen  oath  to  return  to  Carthage  as  a prisoner 
should  the  treaty  fail.  It  was  rejected  at  the  urgent 
desire  of  Regulus  himself,  who  thus  sacrificed  his  life 
to  what  he  judged  the  interest  of  his  country. 


The  Romans. 


249 


Lilyboeum,  the  strongest  of  the  Sicilian  towns  be- 
longing to  Carthage,  was  taken,  after  a siege  of  nine 
years.  After  some  alternate  successes,  two  naval 
battles  won  by  the  Romans  terminated  the  war;  and 
Carthage  at  last  obtained  a peace  on  the  humiliating 
terms  of  abandoning  to  the  Romans  all  her  possessions 
in  Sicily,  the  payment  of  3200  talents  of  silver,  the 
restitution  of  all  prisoners  without  ransom,  and  a 
solemn  engagement  never  to  make  war  against  Syra- 
cuse or  her  allies.  The  island  of  Sicily  was  now  de- 
clared a Roman  province,  though  Syracuse  maintained 
her  independent  government,  A.  U.  C.  51 1 and  B.  C. 
241. 

The  peace  between  Rome  and  Carthage  was  of 
twenty-three  years  duration.  The  latter  power  was  re- 
cruiting her  strength,  and  meditated  to  revenge  her 
losses  and  disgrace.  The  second  Punic  war  began  on 
the  part  of  the  Carthagenians,  who  besieged  Saguntum, 
a city  of  Spain  in  alliance  with  the  Romans.  The 
young  Hannibal  took  Saguntum,  after  a siege  of  seven 
months ; the  desperate  inhabitants  setting  fire  to  the 
town,  and  perishing  amidst  the  flames.  Hannibal  now 
formed  the  bold  design  of  carrying  the  war  into  Italy. 
He  provided  against  every  difficulty,  gained  to  his  in- 
terest a part  of  the  Gallic  tribes,  passed  the  Pyrenees, 
and  finally  the  Alps,  in  a toilsome  march  of  five  months 
and  a half  from  his  leaving  Carthagena , and  arrived 
in  Italy  with  20,000  foot  and  6,000  horse. 

In  the  first  engagement  the  Romans  were  defeated, 
and  they  lost  two  other  important  battles  a Trebia 
and  the  lake  Thrasymenus.  In  the  latter  of  these  the 


250 


Ancient  Empires. 


consul  Flaminius  was  killed,  and  his  army  cut  to 
pieces.  Hannibal  advanced  to  Cannae  in  Apulia;  and 
the  Romans  there  opposing  him  with  their  whole  force, 
a memorable  defeat  ensued,  in  which  40,000  were  left 
dead  upon  the  field,  and  amongst  these  the  consul 
Aemilius,  and  almost  the  whole  bod/  of  the  Roman 
knights.  Had  Hannibal  taken  advantage  of  this  great 
victory,  by  instantly  attacking  Rome,  the  fate  of  the 
republic  was  inevitable;  but  he  deliberated,  and  the 
occasion  was  lost.  The  Romans  concentrated  all  their 
strength ; even  the  slaves  armed  in  the  common  cause, 
and  victory  once  more  attended  the  standards  of  the 
republic.  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  joined  his  forces 
to  the  Carthagenians,  but,  defeated  by  Levinus,  speed- 
ily withdrew  his  assistance.  Hannibal  retreated  before 
the  brave  Marcellus.  Syracuse  had  now  taken  part 
with  Carthage,  and  thus  paved  the  way  for  the  loss  of 
her  own  liberty.  Marcellus  besieged  the  city,  which 
was  long  defended  by  the  inventive  genius  of  Arch- 
imedes, but  taken  in  the  third  year  by  escalade  in  the 
night.  This  event  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Syra- 
cuse, which  now  became  a part  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Sicily,  A.  U.  C.  542,  B.  C.  212. 

While  the  war  in  Italy  was  prosperously  conducted 
by  the  great  Fabius,  who,  by  constantly  avoiding  a 
general  engagement,  found  the  true  method  of  weak- 
ening his  enemy,  the  younger  Scipio  accomplished  the 
entire  reduction  of  Spain.  Asdrubal  was  sent  into 
Italy  to  the  aid  of  his  brother  Hannibal,  but  was  de- 
feated by  the  consul  Claudius,  and  slain  in  battle. 
Scipio,  triumphant  in  Spain,  passed  over  into  Africa, 


The  Romans. 


251 


and  carried  havoc  and  devastation  to  the  gates  of 
Carthage.  Alarmed  for  the  fate  of  their  empire,  the 
Carthagenians  hastily  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy. 
The  battle  of  Zama  decided  the  fate  of  the  war,  by  the 
utter  defeat  of  the  Carthagenians.  They  entreated  a 
peace,  which  the  Romans  gave  on  these  conditions  : 
That  the  Carthagenians  should  abandon  Spain,  Sicily, 
and  all  the  islands ; surrender  all  their  prisoners,  give 
up  the  whole  of  their  fleet  except  ten  galleys,  pay 
10,000  talents,  and,  in  future,  undertake  no  war  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  Romans,  A.  U.  C.  552,  B.  C.  202. 

Everything  now  concurred  to  swell  the  pride  of  the 
conquerors,  and  to  extend  their  dominion.  A war  with 
Philip  of  Macedon  was  terminated  by  his  defeat ; and 
his  son  Demetrius  was  sent  to  Rome  as  a hostage  for 
the  payment  of  a heavy  tribute  imposed  on  the  van- 
quished. A war  with  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria,  ended 
in  his  ceding  to  the  Romans  the  whole  of  the  Lesser 
Asia.  But  these  splendid  conquests,  while  they  en- 
larged the  empire,  were  fatal  to  its  virtues,  and  sub- 
versive of  the  pure  and  venerable  simplicity  of  ancient 
times. 

The  third  Punic  war  began  A.  U.  C.  605,  B.  C 149, 
and  ended  in  the  ruin  of  Carthage.  An  unsuccessful 
war  with  the  Numidians  had  reduced  the  Carthageni- 
ans to  great  weakness,  and  the  Romans  meanly  laid  hold 
of  that  opportunity  to  invade  Africa.  Conscious  of 
their  utter  inability  to  resist  this  formidable  power,  the 
Carthagenians  offered  every  submission,  and  consented 
even  to  acknowledge  themselves  the  subjects  of  Rome. 
The  Romans  demanded  300  hostages  for  the  strict 


252 


Ancient  Empires. 


performance  of  every  condition  that  should  be  enjoined 
by  the  senate.  The  hostages  were  given ; and  the  con- 
dition required  was  that  Carthage  itself  should  be  razed 
to  its  foundation.  Despair  gave  courage  to  this  miser- 
able people,  and  they  determined  to  die  in  the  defense 
of  their  native  city.  But  the  noble  effort  was  in  vain. 
Carthage  was  taken  by  storm,  its  inhabitants  massacred 
and  the  city  burned  to  the  ground,  A.  U.  C.  607,  B.  C. 
146. 

The  same  year  was  signalized  by  the  entire  reduction 
of  Greece  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans.  This 
was  the  era  of  the  dawn  of  luxury  and  taste  at  Rome, 
the  natural  fruit  of  foreign  wealth  and  an  acquaint- 
ance with  foreign  manners.  In  the  unequal  distribution 
of  this  imported  wealth,  the  vices  to  which  it  gave  rise, 
the  corruption  and  venality  of  which  it  became  the 
instrument,  we  see  the  remoter  causes  of  those  fatal 
disorders  to  which  the  republic  owed  its  dissolution. 

DISTURBANCES  EXCITED  BY  THE  GRACCHI,  B.  C.  133-I2I. 

The  destruction  of  Numantia,  and  the  close  of  the 
war  against  the  revolted  slaves  in  Sicily,  coincided 
with  the  beginning  of  the  civil  wars  in  Rome.  Hitherto 
the  warmest  contests  between  the  patricians  and  ple- 
beians had  been  carried  on,  and  their  differences  ad- 
justed without  resorting  to  arms ; the  animosity  of  the 
parties  did  not  go  beyond  a certain  limit,  and  either 
the  condescension  of  the  senate  or  the  moderation  of 
the  people  prevented  the  effusion  of  blood.  But  we 
have  now  reached  the  period  when  ambition,  interest 
and  jealousy,  concealed  under  an  apparent  zeal  for  the 


The  Romans. 


253 


public  good,  prevailed  over  true  patriotism,  wise  coun- 
sels and  moderate  government.  Insidious  and  illegal 
attacks  on  one  side,  extreme  measures  and  violent  reme- 
dies on  the  other,  gave  rise  to  those  bloody  dissensions 
which,  being  often  renewed  with  increased  animosity, 
terminated  in  the  downfall  of  the  republic. 

There  existed  an  ancient  agrarian  law  forbidding  any 
Roman  to  possess  more  than  five  hundred  acres  of 
land,  and  it  was  also  an  ancient  custom  to  distribute 
a part  of  the  conquered  territories  among  the  poor  citi- 
zens. But  these  regulations  had  not  been  enforced  for 
some  centuries,  and  the  wealthy  families  of  Rome  con- 
tinued with  impunity  to  enlarge  their  estates,  which 
they  caused  to  be  cultivated  by  slaves;  whereas  the 
lower  classes  of  the  people  had  neither  land  enough 
nor  sufficient  lucrative  employment  to  provide  for  their 
support.  This  inequality  of  fortune  appeared  to  many 
persons  an  intolerable  disorder,  and  one,  too,  peculiarly 
shocking  in  a republic.  An  attempt  to  suppress  it  by 
the  revival  of  the  agrarian  law  was  made  by  two  illus- 
trious brothers,  Tiberius  Gracchus  and  Caius  Grac- 
chus, who,  besides  being  allied  by  birth  and  matrimonial 
connections  with  the  first  families  of  Rome,  were  still 
more  commendable  for  their  talent,  eloquence,  courage 
and  liberality. 

The  Gracchi  were  the  sons  of  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus,  who,  though  once  raised  to  the  censorship, 
twice  to  the  consulate  and  twice  honored  with  a tri- 
umph, yet  derived  still  greater  dignity  from  his  virtues. 
There  had  always  existed  an  opposition  between  him 
and  the  family  of  the  Scipios ; but  when  both  Publius 


254 


Ancient  Empires. 


and  Lucius  Scipio  were  persecuted  by  a powerful  fac- 
tion at  Rome,  Sempronius  Gracchus  had  the  generosity 
to  declare  himself  in  their  favor  and  openly  to  take 
their  defense,  even  against  the  tribunes,  his  colleagues. 
It  is  believed  that  to  his  conduct  on  this  occasion  he 
was  indebted  for  his  subsequent  alliance  with  their 
illustrious  family ; for  toward  the  close  of  the  life  of 
that  Scipio  who  conquered  Annibal,  he  married  Cor- 
nelia, Scipio’s  daughter,  thus  throwing  new  luster 
around  his  own  name.  He  died  with  a well  deserved 
reputation  for  wisdom  and  virtue,  and  had  a statue 
erected  in  his  honor. 

Cornelia,  being  left  a widow,  devoted  her  whole 
attention  to  the  management  of  her  house  and  the  edu- 
cation of  her  children.  Two  of  them,  Tiberius  and 
Caius,  the  objects  of  the  present  section,  so  faithfully 
corresponded  to  the  cares  of  their  mother  that,  though 
they  manifested  the  happiest  genius  and  disposition,  it 
was  thought  they  owed  still  more  to  education  than  to 
nature.  Hence  they  became  the  peculiar  object  of 
Cornelia’s  glory  and  pride,  as  she  on  one  occasion 
forcibly  manifested  in  a conversation  with  a Campanian 
lady.  This  lady  having  first,  with  much  self-compla- 
cency, laid  her  diamonds,  pearls  and  other  precious 
jewels  before  the  eyes  of  Cornelia,  begged  that  she 
might  see  those  of  Cornelia  herself.  The  latter,  instead 
of  answering,  turned  the  conversation  to  some  other 
object  till  her  sons  returned  from  school.  When  they 
entered  the  room  of  their  mother,  ‘‘These,”  said  she  to 
the  Campanian  lady,  “are  my  jewels  and  my  orna- 
ments,” words  truly  admirable  and  containing  a most 
important  instruction  for  all  mothers  and  children. 


The  Romans. 


255 


The  two  brothers  became  eminent  orators,  though 
there  was  a great  dissimilarity  both  in  their  delivery 
and  their  language.  The  delivery  of  Caius  was  ex- 
tremely energetic,  and  calculated  to  produce  terror ; 
that  of  Tiberius  was  milder,  and  tended  to  excite 
emotion.  Likewise,  the  language  of  Caius  was  splendid 
and  vehement;  that  of  Tiberius,  chaste  and  persuasive, 
and  this  difference  in  their  oratory  seems  to  have 
arisen  from  the  difference  of  their  tempers.  Tiberius 
was  mild  and  gentle;  Caius  was  high  spirited  and 
uncontrolled,  insomuch  that  he  would  often,  in  address- 
ing the  people,  be  carried  away  by  the  vehemence  of 
his  feelings,  exalt  his  voice  above  the  regular  pitch, 
indulge  in  strong  expressions,  and,  hurried  along,  as 
it  were,  by  the  fire  of  action,  would  move  from  one  end 
of  the  rostrum  to  the  other.  To  guard  against  excess 
he  ordered  his  servant  Licinius,  a judicious  man,  to 
stand  behind  him  during  his  harangues  to  the  people, 
with  a flageolet,  and  whenever  he  found  him  straining 
his  voice  or  inclined  to  anger,  to  give  him  a softer  key. 
This  was  sufficient  to  make  him  immediately  abate  the 
violence  of  both  his  action  and  language,  and  to  resume 
a natural  tone. 

Such  were  the  illustrious  brothers  Tiberius  and 
Caius  Gracchus.  Their  natural  dispositions  and  men- 
tal acquirements  added  to  their  virtues,  liberality,  cour- 
age, temperance,  etc.,  seemed  to  prognosticate  in  behalf 
of  Rome  a long  series  of  great  and  important  services. 
Unfortunately,  these  hopes  were  blasted  by  the  nature 
of  the  course  which  they  thought  proper  to  adopt  and 
which  they  too  obstinately  pursued. 


256 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  design  in  behalf  of  the  poor  citizens  had  every 
appearance  of  humanity  and  equity;  still,  in  other 
points  of  view,  it  implied  a great  abuse  of  power.  It 
tended  to  nothing  less  than  to  undermine  the  general 
security  of  property  by  attacking  possessions  which, 
however  unlawful  they  may  have  been  in  their  origin, 
had  quietly  passed,  through  a long  series  of  ages,  from 
the  former  to  the  present  owners  by  way  of  inheritance, 
dowry,  or  purchase  made  in  good  faith.  To  restore 
estates  of  this  description  to  their  original  destination 
was  manifestly  to  introduce  confusion  and  trouble  into 
the  bosom  of  innumerable  families,  and  strangely  at- 
tempt to  enrich  one  portion  of  the  citizens  at  the 
expense  of  the  other.  Moreover,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  Gracchi  endeavored  to  carry  out  their  views, 
sometimes  by  illegal  means,  at  other  times  with  strong 
signs  of  resentment  and  animosity  against  the  senate. 
Hence  no  one  should  be  surprised  that,  although  they 
may  be  praised  in  some  respects,  for  instance,  for  their 
disinterestedness  and  magnanimity,  still  they  have  been 
generally  considered,  even  by  the  greatest  men,  as  the 
leaders  of  a faction  and  the  disturbers  of  public  peace. 

Tiberius,  the  elder,  being  appointed  plebeian  tribune, 
undertook  with  great  vigor  to  effect  the  revival  of  the 
agrarian  law,  so  untiring  were  his  exertions,  and  so 
well  was  he  supported  by  the  favor  of  the  people 
against  the  opposition  of  the  wealthy  citizens,  that  he 
at  last  carried  his  point,  and  had  the  law  republished. 
Still  his  popularity,  owing  to  some  despotic  measures 
to  which  he  had  resorted,  began  to  be  on  the  decline. 
The  senate,  at  the  same  time,  forgetting  their  usual 


The  Romans. 


257 


moderation,  resolved  to  oppose  violence  to  the  practices 
of  the  tribune.  They  availed  themselves,  for  this  pur- 
pose, of  the  following  circumstance : Tiberius,  in  a 

general  assembly  of  the  people,  not  being  able  on 
account  of  the  noise  to  make  himself  heard,  pointed 
with  his  hand  at  his  head,  to  mean  that  his  life  was 
at  stake.  This  gesture  was  maliciously  interpreted 
by  some  to  mean  that  he  asked  for  a royal  diadem. 
The  senators,  headed  by  Scipio  Nasica  and  accompa- 
nied by  their  clients,  ran  forward  to  attack  the  unhappy 
tribune,  notwithstanding  the  crowd  by  which  he  was 
surrounded.  Tiberius  fled,  but  having  fallen  and  being 
overtaken  in  his  flight,  he  was  killed  with  three  hun- 
dred of  his  partisans  (B.  C.  133). 

Caius  Gracchus,  who  was  nine  years  younger  than 
Tiberius,  had  scarcely  any  share  in  these  first  disturb- 
ances ; he  withdrew  for  a time  from  the  public  assem- 
blies, as  though  he  had  no  desire  to  avenge  the  death 
and  pursue  the  projects  of  his  brother.  But  no  sooner 
w£s  he  himself  raised  to  the  dignity  of  tribune  than 
the  people  found  in  him  a most  zealous  defender  of 
their  claims,  and  the  senate  a most  formidable  opponent 
of  their  privileges  and  authority.  By  the  magic  power 
of  his  eloquence  Caius  carried  out  whatever  he  proposed 
to  the  multitude,  and  by  this  means  was  enabled  to 
make  a variety  of  regulations  more  or  less  hostile  to 
the  patrician  order,  and  some  of  them  subversive  of 
the  established  rules  of  government. 

The  senate  devised  a singular  means  to  weaken  the 
amazing  popularity  and  influence  of  this  daring  officer ; 
it  consisted  in  making  still  greater  concessions  to  the 


258 


Ancient  Empires. 


people  than  he  had  made.  Seeing  their  efforts  attended 
with  success,  they  at  length  resolved  to  attack  him 
by  open  force.  The  consul  Opimius,  his  personal 
enemy,  marched  against  him  with  a body  of  chosen 
and  well  armed  men,  and  easily  put  the  attendants  of 
the  tribune  either  to  the  sword  or  to  a precipitate 
flight.  Caius,  abandoned  by  that  very  people  to  whose 
interests  he  had  sacrificed  every  other  consideration, 
was  not  offered  so  much  as  a horse  to  make  his  escape. 
When  he  saw  his  enemies  almost  upon  him,  not  to  fall 
into  their  hands,  he  ordered  a slave  to  kill  him ; the 
slave  obeyed,  and  immediately  after  ran  his  sword 
through  his  own  body,  and  died  near  his  master.  In 
this  terrible  affray  there  perished  with  Caius  about 
three  thousands  persons,  whose  dead  bodies  were 
thrown  into  the  Tiber  (B.  C.  121). 

Such  was  the  unhappy  end  of  Tiberius  and  Caius 
Gracchus,  whom  a mistaken  zeal  rendered  the  disturb- 
ers of  their  country,  whereas  they  might  have  been 
its  best  defenders  and  brightest  ornaments.  Together 
with  them  disappeared  their  projects  and  laws,  but, 
as  the  sequel  will  show,  not  the  sad  example  of  those 
dissensions  and  violent  contests  which  their  proceed- 
ings had  occasioned. 

THE  JUGURTHINE  WAR. 

The  profligacy  and  corruption  of  the  senate  were 
manifest  in  the  events  that  led  to  the  Jugurthine  war, 
which  began  to  embroil  the  republic  soon  after  the  fall 
of  the  Gracchi.  The  Numidian  king  Micipsa,  the  son 
of  Massinissa,  had  divided  his  kingdom,  on  his  death- 
bed, between  his  two  sons,  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal, 


The  Romans. 


259 


and  his  nephew  Jugurtha ; but  the  latter,  resolving  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  whole  inheritance,  soon  mur- 
dered Hiempsal  and  compelled  Adherbal  to  take  refuge 
in  Rome.  The  senate,  won  by  the  bribes  of  the  usurper, 
decreed  a division  of  the  kingdom  between  the  two 
claimants,  giving  to  Jugurtha  the  better  portion;  but 
the  latter  soon  declared  war  against  his  cousin,  and, 
having  gained  possession  of  his  person,  put  him  to 
death.  The  senate  could  no  longer  avoid  a declaration 
of  war  against  Jugurtha;  but  he  would  have  escaped 
by  an  easy  peace,  after  coming  to  Rome  to  plead  his 
own  cause,  had  he  not  there  murdered  another  relative, 
whom  he  suspected  of  aspiring  to  the  throne  of  Nu- 
midia.  (B.  C.  109.) 

Jugurtha  was  allowed  to  return  to  Africa;  but  his 
briberies  of  the  Roman  senators  were  exposed,  and  the 
war  against  him  was  begun  anew.  After  he  had 
defeated  several  armies,  Metellus  drove  him  from  his 
kingdom,  when  the  Numidian  formed  an  alliance  with 
Bacchus,  king  of  Mauritania,  but  their  united  forces 
were  successively  routed  by  the  consul  Marius,  for- 
merly a lieutenant  in  the  army  of  Metellus,  but  who, 
after  obtaining  the  consulship,  had  been  sent  to  termi- 
nate the  war.  Eventually  the  Moorish  king  betrayed 
Jugurtha  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  as  the  price 
of  his  own  peace  and  security  (B.  C.  106),  and  the 
captive  monarch,  after  gracing  the  triumph  of  Marius, 
was  condemned  to  be  starved  to  death  in  prison. 

SOCIAL  WARS. 

About  this  period  the  Roman  republic  wras  again 
convulsed  by  domestic  dissensions.  The  Italian  states 


260 


Ancient  Empires. 


being  frustrated  in  their  aims  of  gaining  the  freedom 
of  Rome,  by  the  intrigues  of  the  senate,  resolved  to 
gain  by  force  what  they  could  not  obtain  as  a favor. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  Social  War,  which  continued  to 
rage  for  several  years,  and  is  said  to  have  involved  the 
destruction  of  three  hundred  thousand  men.  It  was 
finally  terminated  by  granting  the  rights  of  citizenship 
to  all  who  should  lay  down  their  arms  and  return  to' 
their  allegiance. 

This  destructive  war  being  concluded,  the  Romans 
next  turned  their  arms  against  Mithridates,  king  of 
Pontus,  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  the  East,  who 
caused  eighty  thousand  Romans,  who  dwelt  in  the  cities 
of  Asia  Minor,  to  be  massacred  in  one  day.  In  this 
celebrated  contest,  styled  the  Mithridatic  war,  the 
Roman  generals,  Sylla,  Lucullus  and  Pompey,  succes- 
sively bore  a distinguished  part.  The  chief  command 
in  the  war  against  Mithridates  was  first  given  to  Sylla, 
a man  of  great  talents  and  an  able  general ; but  Marius, 
who  had  been  distinguished  for  his  warlike  genius  and 
exploits  for  nearly  half  a century,  now  in  the  seven- 
tieth year  of  his  age,  had  the  address  to  get  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  transferred  from  Sylla  to  himself. 

Sylla,  on  receiving  this  intelligence,  finding  his  troops 
devoted  to  his  interest,  marched  directly  to  Rome, 
which  he  entered  as  a place  taken  by  storm,  and  pro- 
ceeding to  the  senate,  compelled  that  body  to  issue  a 
decree  declaring  Marius  to  be  a public  enemy.  Marius, 
in  the  meantime,  fled  to  Africa,  and  Sylla,  after  some 
delay,  entered  upon  the  Mithridatic  war.  Cinna,  a 
partisan  of  Marius,  having  collected  an  army  in  his 


The  Romans. 


261 


favor,  recalled  the  veteran  warrior,,  and  they  soon  pre- 
sented themselves  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  Marius 
refused  to  enter  the  city,  alleging  that  having  been 
banished  by  a public  decree,  it  was  necessary  that 
another  should  authorize  his  return.  But  before  the 
form  of  annulling  the  sentence  of  his  banishment  was 
concluded  he  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of  his  guards 
and  ordered  a general  massacre  of  all  who  had  ever 
been  obnoxious  to  him.  Many  of  those  who  had  never 
offended  him  were  put  to  death ; and  at  last  even  his 
own  officers  could  not  approach  him  without  terror. 
He  next  proceeded  to  abrogate  all  laws  made  by  his 
rival,  and  associated  himself  in  the  consulship  with 
Cinna.  Thus  having  gratified  his  two  favorite  passions, 
vengeance  and  ambition,  his  bloody  career  was  short- 
ened by  death,  and  shortly  afterward  Cinna  was  cut  off 
by  assassination. 

In  the  meantime  these  accounts  were  brought  to 
Sylla,  who  was  pursuing  a victorious  campaign  against 
Mithridates;  but  having  concluded  a peace  with  that 
monarch,  he  hastened  to  Rome  to  take  vengeance  on 
his  enemies.  Having  entered  the  city,  he  caused  a more 
horrible  massacre  than  that  which  took  place  under 
Marius.  He  ordered  eight  thousand  men,  who  sur- 
rendered themselves  to  him,  to  be  put  to  death,  while 
he,  without  being  the  least  discomposed,  harangued 
the  senate.  The  day  following  he  proscribed  forty 
senators  and  sixteen  hundred  knights  ; and  after  a short 
interval  forty  senators  more,  with  a much  greater  num- 
ber of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of  Rome.  He 
then  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  perpetual  die- 


262 


Ancient  Empires. 


tator,  but  after  having  held  it  for  nearly  three  years, 
to  the  astonishment  of  all  mankind,  he  resigned  the 
dictatorship,  and  retired  to  the  country,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  the  society  of 
licentious  persons  and  the  occasional  pursuit  of  liter- 
ature. After  his  death  a magnificent  monument  was 
erected  to  him,  with  the  following  epitaph  written  by 
himself : “I  am  Sylla,  the  Fortunate,  who,  in  the 

course  of  my  life,  have  surpassed  both  friends  and 
enemies ; the  former  in  the  good,  and  the  latter  in  the 
evil  I have  done  them.”  In  the  civil  war  between 
Marius  and  Sylla  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
Roman  citizens  are  said  to  have  been  sacrified,  includ- 
ing among  them  more  than  two  hundred  senators  and 
persons  of  distinguished  rank. 

While  the  commonwealth  was  yet  distracted  by  the 
old  dissensions,  new  calamities  were  added.  Spartacus, 
a Thracian,  who  had  been  kept  at  Capua  as  a gladiator, 
placing  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  slaves,  laid 
waste  the  country,  but  was  at  length  totally  defeated 
by  Crassus,  with  the  loss  of  forty  thousand  men.  A 
few  years  after  this  event  a conspiracy,  which  threat- 
ened the  destruction  of  Rome,  was  headed  by  Catiline, 
a man  of  courage  and  talents,  but  of  ruined  fortune 
and  of  the  most  profligate  character.  A plan  was  con- 
certed for  a simultaneous  insurrection  throughout  Italy. 
Rome  was  to  be  set  on  fire  in  many  places,  and,  in  the 
general  confusion,  Catiline  was  to  enter  the  city  at 
the  head  of  a powerful  force,  murder  the  senators  and 
usurp  the  reins  of  government.  Cicero,  the  great 
Roman  orator,  discovered  the  plot  and  Catiline  was 
defeated  and  killed  in  the  battle  that  followed. 


The  Romans. 


263 


FIRST  TRIUMVIRATE. 

Julius  Caesar  now  rose  into  public  notice.  Sylla 
dreaded  his  abilities  and  ambition,  and  had  numbered 
him  among  the  proscribed.  “There  is  many  a Marius/’ 
said  he,  “in  the  person  of  that  young  man.”  He  had 
learned  prudence  from  the  danger  of  his  situation, 
and  tacitly  courted  popularity,  without  that  show  of 
enterprise  which  gives  alarm  to  a rival.  While  Pompey 
and  Crassus  contended  for  the  command  of  the  repub- 
lic, Caesar,  who  knew,  that  by  attaching  himself  to 
either  rival,  he  infallibly  made  the  other  his  enemy, 
showed  the  reach  of  his  talents  by  reconciling  them, 
and  thus  acquiring  the  friendship  of  both.  From 
favor  to  their  mutual  friend,  they  agreed  to  a partition 
of  power,  forming  thus  the  first  triumvirate,  B.  C.  60. 

These  men,  by  their  united  influence,  were  now  able 
to  carry  all  their  measures,  and  they  virtually  usurped 
the  powers  of  the  senate,  as  well  as  the  command  of 
the  legions.  Caesar  first  obtained  the  office  of  consul 
(B.  C.  59),  and,  when  the  year  of  his  consulship  had 
expired,  was  made  commander  of  all  Gaul  (B.  C.  58), 
although  but  a small  portion  of  that  country  was  then 
under  the  Roman  dominion.  Crassus,  whose  avarice 
was  unbounded,  soon  after  obtained  the  command  of 
Syria,  famed  for  its  luxury  and  wealth,  while  to 
Pompey  were  given  Africa  and  Spain,  although  he  left 
the  care  of  his  provinces  to  others,  and  still  remained 
in  Italy. 

In  the  course  of  eight  years  Caesar  conquered  all 
Gaul,  which  consisted  of  a great  number  of  separate 
nations,  twice  passed  the  Rhine  into  Germany,  and 


204 


Ancient  Empires. 


twice  passed  over  into  Britain  and  subdued  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  island.  Hitherto  Britain  had  been 
known  only  by  name  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans ; -and 
its  first  invasion  by  Caesar,  in  the  year  55  B.  C.,  is  the 
beginning  of  its  authentic  history.  The  disembarkation 
of  the  Romans,  somewhere  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Kent,  was  firmly  disputed  by  the  natives;  but  stern 
discipline  and  steady  valor  overawed  them,  and  they 
proffered  submission.  A second  invasion  in  the  ensu- 
ing spring  was  also  resisted ; but  genius  and  science 
asserted  their  usual  superiority,  and  peace  and  the 
withdrawal  of  the  invaders  were  purchased  by  the 
payment  of  tribute.  In  the  meantime  Crassus  had 
fallen  in  Parthia  (B.  C.  52),  thus  leaving  but  two 
masters  of  the  Roman  world ; but  Pompey  had  already 
become  jealous  of  the  greatness  of  Caesar’s  fame,  and 
on  the  death  of  Julia,  the  wife  of  Pompey  and  daughter 
of  Caesar,  the  last  tie  that  bound  these  friends  was 
broken,  and  they  became  rivals  and  enemies.  Pompey 
had  secured  most  of  the  senate  to  his  interests  ; but 
Caesar,  though  absent,  had  obtained,  by  the  most  lavish 
bribes,  numerous  and  powerful  adherents  in  the  very 
heart  of  Rome.  Among  others,  Mark  Antony  and 
Quintus  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  people,  favored  his 
interests. 

WARS  OF  CAESAR  AND  POMPEY. 

The  ambition  of  Caesar  and  of  Pompey  had  now 
evidently  the  same  object ; and  it  seemed  to  be  the  only 
question  in  those  degenerate  times  to  which  of  these 
aspiring  leaders  the  republic  should  surrendef  its  lib- 


The  Romans. 


265 


erties.  The  term  of  Caesar's  government  was  near 
expiring;  but  to  secure  himself  against  a deprivation 
of  power  he  procured  a proposal  to  be  made  in  the 
senate  by  one  of  his  partisans,  which  wore  the  appear- 
ance of  great  moderation,  namely,  that  Caesar  and 
Pompey  should  either  both  continue  in  their  govern- 
ments, or  both  be  deprived  of  them,  as  they  were 
equally  capable  of  endangering  the  public  liberty  by 
an  abuse  of  power.  The  motion  passed,  and  Caesar 
immediately  offered  to  resign,  on  condition  that  his 
rival  should  do  so;  but  Pompey  rejected  the  accommo- 
dation ; the  term  of  his  government  had  yet  several 
years'  duration,  and  he  suspected  the  proposal  to  be 
a snare  laid  for  him  by  Caesar.  He  resolved  to  main- 
tain his  right  by  force  of  arms,  and  a civil  war  was 
the  necessary  consequence.  The  consuls  and  a great 
part  of  the  senate  were  the  friends  of  Pompey.  Caesar 
had  on  his  side  a victorious  army,  consisting  of  ten 
legions,  and  the  body  of  the  Roman  citizens,  whom 
he  had  won  by  his  liberality.  Mark  Antony  and 
Cassius,  at  that  time  tribunes  of  the  people,  left  Rome 
and  repaired  to  Caesar's  camp. 

The  senate,  apprehensive  of  his  designs,  pronounced 
a decree,  branding  with  the  crime  of  parricide  any 
commander  who  should  dare  to  pass  the  Rubicon  (the 
boundary  between  Italy  and  the  Gauls)  with  a single 
cohort,  without  their  permission.  Caesar  infringed  the 
prohibition,  and  marched  straight  to  Rome.  Pompey, 
to  whom  the  senate  committed  the  defense  of  the  state, 
had  no  army.  He  quitted  Rome,  followed  by  the  con- 
suls and  a part  of  the  senate,  and  endeavored  hastily 


260 


Ancient  Empires. 


to  levy  troops  over  all  Italy  and  Greece;  while  Gcsar 
triumphantly  entered  the  city  amidst  the  acclamations 
of  the  people,  seized  the  public  treasury,  and  possessed 
himself  of  the  supreme  authority  without  opposition. 
Having  secured  the  capital  of  the  empire,  he  set  out  to 
take  the  field  against  his  enemies.  The  lieutenants  of 
Pompey  had  possession  of  Spain.  Caesar  marched 
thither,  and  subdued  the  whole  country  in  the  space 
of  forty  days.  He  returned  victorious  to  Rome,  where, 
in  his  absence,  he  had  been  nominated  dictator.  In 
the  succeeding  election  of  magistrates  he  was  chosen 
consul,  and  thus  invested,  by  a double  title,  with  the 
right  of  acting  in  the  name  of  the  republic.  Pompey 
had  by  this  time  raised  a numerous  army,  and  Caesar 
was  anxious  to  bring  him  to  a decisive  engagement. 
He  joined  him  in  Illyria,  and  the  first  conflict  was  of 
doubtful  issue ; but  leading  on  his  army  to  Macedonia, 
where  they  found  a large  reinforcement,  he  gave  battle 
to  Pompey  in  the  field  of  Pharsalia,  and  entirely  de- 
feated him.  Fifteen  thousand  were  slain  and  twenty- 
four  thousand  surrendered  themselves  prisoners  to  the 
victor,  A.  U.  C.  705,  B.  C.  49. 

The  fate  of  Pompey  was  miserable  in  the  extreme. 
With  his  wife,  Cornelia,  the  companion  of  his  misfor- 
tunes, he  fled  to  Egypt  in  a single  ship,  trusting  to  the 
protection  of  Ptolemy,  whose  father  had  owed  to  him 
his  settlement  on  the  throne.  But  the  ministers  of  this 
young  prince,  dreading  the  power  of  Caesar,  basely 
courted  his  favor  by  the  murder  of  his  rival.  Brought 
ashore  in  a small  boat  by  the  guards  of  the  king,  a 
Roman  centurion,  who  had  fought  under  his  own  ban- 


The  Romans. 


267 


tiers,  stabbed  him,  even  in  the  sight  of  Cornelia,  and, 
cutting  off  his  head,  threw  the  body  naked  on  the  sands. 
Caesar  pursued  Pompey  to  Alexandria,  where  the 
head  of  that  unhappy 'man,  presented  as  a grateful 
offering,  gave  him  the  first  intelligence  of  his  fate.  He 
wept,  and  turned  with  horror  from  the  sight.  He 
caused  every  honor  to  be  paid  to  his  memory,  and  from 
that  time  showed  the  utmost  beneficence  to  the  parti- 
sans of  his  unfortunate  rival. 

The  sovereignty  of  Egypt  was  in  dispute  between 
Ptolemy  and  his  sister  Cleopatra.  The  latter,  though 
married  to  her  brother  and  joint  heir  by  their  father’s 
will,  was  ambitious  of  undivided  authority ; and  Caesar, 
captivated  by  her  charms,  decided  the  contest  in  favor 
of  the  beauteous  queen.  A war  ensued,  in  which 
Ptolemy  was  killed,  and  Egypt  subdued  by  the  Roman 
arms.  In  this  war  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria 
was  burned  to  ashes,  B.  C.  48.  A revolt  of  the  Asiatic 
provinces,  under  Pharnaces,  the  son  of  Mithridates, 
was  signally  chastised,  and  the  report  conveyed  by 
Caesar  to  the  Roman  senate  in  three  words,  Veni , vidi, 
vici.  The  conqueror  returned  to  Rome,  which  needed 
his  presence;  for  Italy  was  divided,  and  the  partisans 
of  Pompey  were  yet  extremely  formidable.  His  two 
sons,  with  Cato  and  Scipio,  were  in  arms  in  Africa. 
Caesar  pursued  them  thither,  and  proceeding  with 
caution  till  secure  of  his  advantage,  defeated  them  in  a 
decisive  engagement  at  Thapsus.  Scipio  perished  in 
his  passage  to  Spain.  Cato,  shutting  himself  up  in 
Utica,  meditated  a brave  resistance ; but  finally,  seeing 
no  hope  of  success,  he  determined  not  to  survive  the 


268 


Ancient  Empires. 


liberties  of  his  country,  and  fell  deliberately  by  his 
own  hand.  Mauritania  was  now  added  to  the  number 
of  the  Roman  provinces,  and  Caesar  returned  to  Rome 
absolute  master  of  the  empire. 

From  that  moment  his  attention  was  directed  solely 
to  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  the  Roman  people. 
He  remembered  no  longer  that  there  had  been  opposite 
parties,  beneficent  alike  to  the  friends  of  Pompey  as  to 
his  own.  He  labored  to  reform  every  species  of  abuse 
or  grievance.  He  introduced  order  into  every  depart- 
ment of  the  state,  defining  the  separate  rights  of  all 
its  magistrates,  and  extending  his  care  to  the  regulation  ' 
of  its  most  distant  provinces.  The  reformation  of 
the  calendar,  the  draining  the  marshes  of  Italy,  the 
navigation  of  the  Tiber,  the  embellishment  of  Rome, 
the  complete  survey  and  delineation  of  the  empire, 
alternately  employed  his  liberal  and  capacious  mind. 
Returning  from  the  final  overthrow  of  Pompey’s  party 
in  Spain,  he  was  hailed  the  father  of  his  country,  was 
created  consul  for  ten  years,  and  perpetual  dictator. 
His  person  was  declared  sacred,  his  title  henceforth 
Imperator,  A.  U.  C.  709,  B.  C.  45. 

The  Roman  republic  had  thus  finally,  by  its  own 
acts,  resigned  its  liberties.  They  were  not  extinguished, 
as  Montesquieu  has  well  remarked,  by  the  ambition 
of  a Pompey  or  of  a Caesar.  If  the  sentiments  of  Caesar 
and  Pompey  had  been  the  same  with  those  of  Cato, 
others  would  have  had  the  same  ambitious  thoughts ; 
and  since  the  commonwealth  was  fated  to  fall,  there 
never  would  have  been  wanting  a hand  to  drag  it  to 
destruction.  Yet  Caesar  had  by  force  subdued  his 


The  Romans. 


269 


country ; he  therefore  was  an  usurper ; and  had  it  been 
possible  to  restore  the  liberties  of  the  republic,  and 
with  these  its  happiness,  by  the  suppression  of  that 
usurpation,  the  attempt  had  merited  the  praise,  at  least, 
of  good  design.  Perhaps  so  thought  his  murderers ; and 
thus,  however  weak  their  policy,  however  base  and 
treacherous  their  act,  with  many  they  will  ever  find 
apologists.  They  madly  dreamed  an  impossible  issue, 
as  the  event  demonstrated. 

A conspiracy  was  formed  by  sixty  of  the  senators, 
at  the  head  of  whom  were  Brutus  and  Cassius,  the 
former  a man  beloved  of  Caesar,  who  had  saved  his 
life  and  heaped  upon  him  numberless  benefits.  It  was 
rumored  that  the  dictator  wished  to  add  to  his  numer- 
ous titles  that  of  king,  and  that  the  Ides  of  March 
was  fixed  on  for  investing  him  with  the  diadem.  On 
that  day,  when  taking  his  seat  in  the  senate  house,  he 
was  suddenly  assailed  by  the  conspirators ; he  defended 
himself  for  some  time  against  their  daggers,  till,  seeing 
Brutus  amongst  the  number,  he  faintly  exclaimed, 
“And  you,  too,  my  son !”  and,  covering  his  face  with  his 
robe,  resigned  himself  to  his  fate.  He  fell,  pierced 
by  twenty-three  wounds,  A.  U.  C.  71 1,  B.  C.  43. 

The  Roman  people  were  struck  with  horror  at  the 
deed ; they  loved  Caesar,  master  as  he  was  of  their  lives 
and  liberties.  Mark  Antony  and  Lepidus,  ambitious 
of  succeeding  to  the  power  of  the  dictator,  resolved 
to  pave  the  way  by  avenging  his  death.  The  people, 
to  whom  Caesar,  by  his  testament,  had  bequeathed  a 
great  part  of  his  fortune,  were  penetrated  with  grati- 
tude to  his  memory.  A public  harangue  from  Antony 


270 


Ancient  Empires. 


over  the  bleeding  body,  exposed  in  the  forum,  inflamed 
them  with  the  utmost  indignation  against  his  mur- 
derers, who  must  have  met  with  instant  destruction 
had  they  not  escaped  with  precipitation  from  the  city. 
Antony  profited  by  these  dispositions,  and  the  avenger 
of  Caesar,  of  course  the  favorite  of  the  people,  was  in 
the  immediate  prospect  of  attaining  a similar  height 
of  dominion.  In  this,  however,  he  found  a formidable 
competitor  in  Octavius,  the  grand-nephew  and  the 
adopted  heir  of  Caesar,  who  at  this  critical  moment 
arrived  in  Rome.  Availing  himself  of  these  titles, 
Octavius  gained  the  senate  to  his  interest,  and  divided 
with  Antony  the  favor  of  the  people.  The  rivals  soon 
perceived  that  it  was  their  wisest  plan  to  unite  their 
interests ; and  they  admitted  Lepidus  into  their  associa- 
tion, whose  power,  as  governor  of  Gaul,  and  immense 
riches,  gave  him  a title  to  a share  of  authority.  Thus 
was  formed  the  second  Triumvirate,  the  effects  of 
whose  union  were  beyond  measure  dreadful  to  the 
republic.  The  Triumviri  divided  among  themselves 
the  provinces,  and  cemented  their  union  by  a deliberate 
sacrifice  made  by  each  of  his  best  friends  to  the  venge- 
ance of  his  associates.  Antony  consigned  to  death  his 
uncle  Lucius,  Lepidus  his  brother  Paulus  and  Octavius 
his  guardian  Toranius,  and  his  friend  Cicero.  In  this 
horrible  proscription  three  hundred  senators  and  three 
thousand  knights  were  put  to  death. 

Octavius  and  Antony  now  marched  against  the  con- 
spirators, who  had  a formidable  army  in  the  field  in 
Thrace,  commanded  by  Brutus  and  Cassius.  An  en- 
gagement ensued  at  Philippi,  which  decided  the  fate  of 


The  Romans. 


271 


the  empire.  Antony  was  victorious,  for  Octavius  had 
no  military  talents ; he  was  destitute  even  of  personal 
bravery ; and  his  conduct  after  the  victpry  was  stained 
with  that  cruelty  which  is  ever  the  attendant  of  cow- 
ardice. Brutus  and  Cassius  escaped  the  vengeance  of 
their  enemies  by  a voluntary  death.  Antony  now 
sought  a recompense  for  his  troops  by  the  plunder  of 
the  East.  While  in  Cilicia  he  summoned  Cleopatra  to 
answer  for  her  conduct  in  dethroning  an  infant  brother 
and  in  openly  favoring  the  party  of  Brutus  and  Cassius. 
The  queen  came  to  Tarsus,  and  made  a complete  con- 
quest of  the  Triumvir.  Immersed  .in  luxury,  and 
intoxicated  with  love,  he  forgot  glory,  ambition,  fame, 
and  everything  for  Cleopatra ; and  Octavius  saw  this 
frenzy  with  delight,  as  the  preparative  of  his  rival’s 
ruin.  He  had  nothing  to  dread  from  Lepidus,  whose 
insignificant  character  first  drew  on  him  the  contempt 
of  his  partisans,  and  whose  folly,  in  attempting  an 
invasion  of  the  province  of  his  colleague,  was  punished 
by  his  deposition  and  banishment. 

Antony  had  in  his  madness  lavished  the  provinces 
of  the  empire  in  gifts  to  his  paramour  and  her  children. 
The  Roman  people  were  justly  indignant  at  these 
enormities;  and  the  divorce  of  his  wife  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  his  colleague,  was  at  length  the  signal  of 
declared  hostility  between  them.  An  immense  arma- 
ment, chiefly  naval,  came  to  a decisive  conflict  near 
Actium,  on  the  coast  of  Epirus.  Cleopatra,  who  at- 
tended her  lover,  deserted  him  with  her  galleys  in  the 
heat  of  the  engagement ; and  such  was  the  infatuation 
of  Antony  that  he  abandoned  his  fleet  and  followed 


272 


Ancient  Empires. 


her.  After  a contest  of  some  hours  they  yielded  to 
the  squadron  of  Octavius,  A.  U.  C.  723,  B.  C.  31. 
The  victor  pursued  the  fugitives  to  Egypt;  and  the 
base  Cleopatra  proffered  terms  to  Octavius,  including 
the  surrender  of  her  kingdom  and  the  abandonment 
of  Antony.  After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  resist- 
ance he  anticipated  his  fate  by  falling  on  his  sword. 
And  Cleopatra  soon  after,  either  from  remorse,  or  more 
probably  from  mortified  ambition,  as  she  found  it  was 
Octavius’  design  to  lead  her  in  chains  to  Rome  to 
grace  his  triumph,  had  courage  to  follow  the  example 
of  her  lover,  and  put  herself  to  death  by  the  poison  of 
an  asp.  Octavius  returned  to  Rome,  sole  master  of 
the  Roman  empire,  A.  U.  C.  727,  B.  C.  27. 

ROMAN  EMPERORS. 

By  the  death  of  Antony,  Ocatavius,  now  styled 
Augustus,  became  sole  master  of  the  Roman  empire. 
Having  returned  in  triumph  to  Rome,  he  endeavored, 
by  sumptuous  feasts  and  magnificent  shows,  to  oblit- 
erate the  impressions  of  his  former  cruelty,  and  re- 
solved to  secure,  by  acts  of  clemency  and  benevolence, 
that  throne,  the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  in  blood. 
Having  established  order  in  the  state,  Augustus  found 
himself  agitated  by  different  inclinations,  and  consid- 
ered for  some  time  whether  he  should  retain  the 
imperial  authority  or  restore  the  republic.  By  Agrippa 
he  was  advised  to  pursue  the  latter  course;  but,  fol- 
lowing the  advice  of  Maecenas,  he  resolved  to  retain  the 
sovereign  authority. 

Augustus,  in  his  administration,  affected  an  appear- 


The  Romans. 


273 


ance  of  great  moderation  and  respect  for  the  public 
rights,  and,  having  gained  the  affections  of  the  people 
and  his  soldiers,  he  endeavored  by  every  means  to 
render  permanent  their  attachment.  As  a general  he 
w as  more  fortunate  than  eminent ; though  the  general 
character  of  his  reign  was  pacific,  still  several  wars 
were  successfully  carried  on  by  his  lieutenants ; he 
seemed  to  aim  at  gaining  a character  by  the  arts  of 
peace  alone ; he  embellished  the  city,  erected  public 
buildings  and  pursued  the  policy  of  maintaining  order 
and  tranquillity  in  every  portion  of  his  vast  dominions. 
During  his  reign  the  temple  of  Janus  was  closed  for 
the  first  time  since  the  commencement  of  the  second 
Punic  war,  and  third  time  from  the  reign  of  Numa. 

Augustus  having  accompanied  Tiberius  in  his  march 
into  Illyria,  was  taken  dangerously  ill,  and  on  his  return 
died  at  Nolla,  near  Capua  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of 
his  age,  after  an  illustrious1  reign  of  forty-four  years. 

Augustus  was  possessed  of  eminent  abilities,  both 
as  a warrior  and  a statesman ; but  the  cruelties  and 
treachery  exercised  by  him  while  a member  of  the 
triumvirate  have  left  an  indelible  stain  upon  his  char- 
acter, and  rendered  it  doubtful  whether  the  virtues 
which  he  manifested  in  after-life  sprung  rather  from 
policy  than  from  principle.  The  emperor  and  his  chief 
minister,  Maecenas,  were  both  eminent  patrons  of  learn- 
ing and  the  arts ; and  the  Augustan  age  of  Roman  liter- 
ature has  been  justly  admired  by  all  succeeding  ages. 
Among  those  who  distinguished  his  reign  were  the 
celebrated  poets  Virgil,  Horace  and  Ovid,  with  Livy, 
the  historian.  But  the  most  memorable  event  which 


274 


Ancient  Empires. 


took  place  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  was  the  birth 
of  our  Lord  and  Savior  Jesus  Christ,  which  happened, 
according  to  the  best  authorities,  in  the  twenty-sixth 
year  of  his  reign,  and  four  years  before  the  period  com- 
monly assigned  for  the  Christian  era. 

Augustus,  previous  to  his  death,  had  nominated 
Tiberius  to  succeed  him  in  the  empire.  The  new 
emperor,  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  exhibited 
a show  of  moderation  and  clemency ; but  he  soon  threw 
off  the  mask  and  appeared  in  his  natural  character  as 
a cruel  and  odious  tyrant.  The  brilliant  success  of  his 
nephew  Germanicus,  in  Germany,  excited  the  jealousy 
of  Tiberius,  who  recalled  him  to  Rome,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  caused  his  death  by  poison.  Having  then  taken 
into  his  confidence  Sejanus,  a Roman  knight,  who 
became  the  minister  of  his  cruelty  and  pleasure,  he 
retired  to  the  island  of  Caprese,  and  abandoned  himself 
to  the  most  infamous  debaucheries.  Sejanus,  now  pos- 
sessed of  almost  unlimited  power,  committed  the  most 
fearful  cruelties  against  the  citizens  of  Rome;  Nero 
and  Drusus,  the  sons  of  Germanicus,  were  starved 
to  death  in  prison ; Sabinus,  Gallus,  and  other  distin- 
guished persons  were  executed  upon  slight  pretenses ; 
but  his  career  was  of  short  duration.  Being  accused 
of  treason,  he  was  suddenly  precipitated  from  his  ele- 
vation and  executed*  by  order  of  the  senate ; his  body 
was  afterward  dragged  ignominiously  through  the 
streets. 

This  event  seemed  only  to  increase  the  emperor’s 
rage  for  cruelty.  Now  weary  of  particular  executions, 
he  gave  orders  that  all  the  accused  should  be  put  to 


The  Romans. 


275 


death  without  further  examination.  When  one  Carnu- 
lius  had  killed  himself  to  avoid  the  torture,  “Ah,” 
exclaimed  Tiberius,  “how  has  that  man  been  able  to 
escape  me?” 

In  his  seventy-eighth  year  and  the  twenty-second 
of  his  reign,  he  was  strangled  by  one  of  his  favorites. 

Four  years  before  occurred  the  crucifixion  of  Christ. 

Tiberius  named  as  his  heir  Caligula,  son  of  Germani- 
cus,  in  union  with  Tiberius,  son  of  Drusus  and  grand- 
son of  the  emperor.  Because  of  the  love  of  the  people 
for  Germanicus  the  senate  set  aside  the  claims  of 
Tiberius  and  conferred  the  undivided  empire  upon 
Germanicus.  The  beginning  of  his  reign  was  auspi- 
cious for  clemency  and  good  policy. 

He  restored  the  privileges  of  the  Comitia  and  abol- 
ished arbitrary  prosecutions  for  crimes  of  state.  But, 
tyrannical  and  cruel  by  nature,  he  substituted  military 
execution  for  legal  punishment.  The  provinces  were 
loaded  with  the  most  oppressive  taxes,  and  daily  confis- 
cations filled  the  imperial  coffers.  The  follies  and 
absurdities  of  Caligula  were  equal  to  his  vices ; and 
it  is  hard  to  say  whether  he  was  most  the  object  of 
hatred  or  of  contempt  to  his  subjects.  He  perished 
by  assassination  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  and 
twenty-ninth  of  his  age,  A.  U.  C.  794,  A.  D.  42. 

Claudius,  the  uncle  of  Caligula,  was  saluted  emperor 
by  the  praetorian  guards,  who  had  been  the  murderers 
of  his  nephew.  He  was  the  son  of  Octavia,  the  sister 
of  Augustus ; a man  of  weak  intellects,  and  of  no  edu- 
cation ; yet  his  short  reign  was  marked  by  an  enterprise 
of  importance.  He  undertook  the  reduction  of  Britain ; 


276 


Ancient  Empires. 


and,  after  visiting  the  island  in  person,  left  his  generals, 
Plautius  and  Vespasian,  to  prosecute  a war  which  was 
carried  on  for  several  years  with  various  success.  The 
Silures,  or  inhabitants  of  South  Wales,  under  their 
king,  Caractacus  (Caradoc),  made  a brave  resistance, 
but  were  finally  defeated,  and  Caractacus  led  captive 
to  Rome,  where  the  magnanimity  of  his  demeanor  pro- 
cured him  respect  and  admiration. 

The  civil  administration  of  Claudius  was  weak  and 
contemptible.  He  was  the  slave  even  of  his  domestics, 
and  the  dupe  of  his  infamous  wives,  Messalina  and 
Agrippina.  The  former,  abandoned  to  the  most  shame- 
ful profligacy,  was  at  length  put  to  death,  on  suspicion 
of  treasonable  designs.  The  latter,  who  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Germanicus,  bent  her  utmost  endeavors  to  secure 
the  succession  to  the  empire  to  her  son,  Domitius 
Aenobarbus,  and  employed  every  engine  of  vice  and 
inhumanity  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  her  wishes.  Having  at  length  prevailed  on 
Claudius  to  adopt  her  son,  and  confer  on  him  the  title 
of  Caesar,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  son  Britannicus, 
she  noiw  made  room  for  the  immediate  elevation  of 
Domitius,  who  then  assumed  the  name  Nero  Claudius, 
by  poisoning  her  husband.  Claudius  thus  died  in  the 
fifteenth  year  of  his  reign  and  sixty-third  of  his  age. 

Nero  had  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  a good  education 
under  the  philosopher  Seneca,  and  at  the  commencement 
of  his  reign,  he  pursued  an  excellent  plan  of  govern- 
ment, which  was  laid  down  by  Seneca  and  Burrhus 
(the  latter  of  whom  was  the  prefect  of  the  praetorian 
guard),  and  which  held  out  the  prospect  of  better 


The  Romans. 


277 


times ; but  he  soon  got  rid  of  his  counselors,  abandoned 
himself  to  rioting  and  licentiousness,  gained  a notoriety 
for  profligacy  and  cruelty  above  that  of  even  all  his 
predecessors,  and  rendered  his  name  proverbial  in  all 
succeeding  ages  as  a detestable  tyrant.  Among  the 
numerous  victims  who  suffered  death  by  his  cruelty 
were  his  mother  Agrippina,  his  wives  Octavia  and 
Poppcea,  Seneca  and  Burrhus,  also  Lucan,  the  poet. 

He  is  charged  with  having  caused  the  city  of  Rome 
to  be  set  on  fire,  in  mere  wantonness,  that  it  might 
exhibit  the  representation  of  the  burning  of  Troy;  and 
he  stood  upon  a high  tower  that  he  might  enjoy  the 
scene.  The  conflagration  continued  nine  days,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  city  was  burnt  to  ashes.  In  order  to 
avert  from  himself  the  public  odium  of  the  crime,  he 
charged  it  upon  the  Christians,  who  had  now  become 
numerous  in  Rome,  and  commenced  against  them  a 
most  dreadful  persecution,  in  which  St.  Paul  was  be- 
headed. 

Nero,  who  rendered  himself  no  less  contemptible  by 
his  follies  and  extravagances  than  hateful  by  his  crimes, 
was  too  odious  a monster  to  be  long  endured.  A con- 
spiracy, headed  by  Vindex  in  Gaul,  and  Galba  in  Spain, 
hurled  him,  at  length,  from  the  throne.  Galba,  in  a 
speech,  recapitulating  his  crimes,  said : '‘What  enor- 

mity has  been  too  great  for  him?  Is  he  not  stained 
with  the  blood  of  his  father,  his  mother,  his  wife,  his 
preceptors,  of  all  those  who,  in  the  senate,  the  city,  or 
the  provinces,  were  distinguished  by  birth,  riches,  cour- 
age, or  virtue?  The  blood  of  these  innocent  victims 
cries  for  vengeance ; and  since  we  are  possessed  of 


278 


Ancient  Empires. 


arms  and  of  power  of  using  them,  let  us  disdain  to 
obey,  not  a prince,  but  an  incendiary,  a parricide,  a 
singer,  and  an  actor.”  The  senate  having  passed  sen- 
tence against  him,  he  avoided  falling  into  their  hands 
by  a voluntary  death,  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  his  reign 
and  the  thirty-second  of  his  age. 

After  the  death  of  Nero,  Galba  was  declared  emperor, 
both  by  the  senate  and  by  the  legions  under  his  com- 
mand. He  was  esteemed  a man  of  courage,  talents 
and  virtue,  and  had  acquired  a high  reputation  in  the 
command  of  armies  in  the  provinces ; but  he  was  now 
in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age,  and  he  soon 
became  unpopular  by  his  severity  and  parsimony,  and 
by  the  abuses  practiced  by  his  favorites.  He  adopted 
for  his  successor  the  virtuous  Piso,  a measure  which 
gave  offense  to  Otho,  his  former  favorite,  who  excited 
a rebellion  against  him,  and  caused  the  death  both  of 
the  emperor  and  of  Piso,  after  a reign  of  only  seven 
months.  Tacitus  says  of  him  that,  “Had  he  never  as- 
cended the  throne,  he  would  have  been  thought,  by  all, 
capable  of  reigning.” 

Otho  was  then  proclaimed  emperor;  but  he  found  a 
formidable  rival  in  Vitellius,  by  whose  lieutenants  he 
was  defeated,  and  he  slew  himself  after  a reign  of 
ninety-five  days.  Vitellius,  being  saluted  as  emperor, 
is  said  to  have  proposed  Nero  for  his  model,  and 
rendered  himself  odious  to  the  people  by  his  tyranny 
and  profligacy.  Vespasian,  who  was  now  at  the  head 
of  the  Roman  army  in  Egypt,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  his  troops.  Rome  was  taken  by  one  of  his  generals, 
and  Vitellius  was  assassinated  before  he  had  completed 
the  first  year  of  his  reign. 


The  Romans. 


279 


Vespasian  was  declared  emperor  by  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  senate  and  the  army ; and  on  his  arrival 
at  Rome  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  joy.  He 
had  risen  by  his  merit  from  a mean  origin ; was  distin- 
guished for  his  affability,  clemency  and  firmness;  and 
reigned  with  high  popularity  for  ten  years,  promoting 
the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  He  restored  order,  built 
the  celebrated  amphitheater  or  Coliseum,  whose  ruins 
still  attest  its  grandeur,  cherished  the  arts,  and  patron- 
ized learned  men,  among  whom  were  Josephus,  the 
Jewish  historian ; Quintilian,  the  orator,  and  Pliny,  the 
naturalist. 

Titus,  the  son  of  Vespasian,  is  known  in  history 
chiefly  for  his  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

After  a tremendous  siege  of  six  months  the  city  was 
taken  and  razed  to  the  ground,  verifying  the  predic- 
tions of  our  divine  Savior  that  “not  a stone  should 
remain  upon  a stone.”  According  to  Josephus,  the 
number  of  Jews  that  perished  during  the  siege  exceeded 
one  million,  and  the  captives  amounted  to  almost  a 
hundred  thousand.  Vespasian  having  reigned  ten 
years,  beloved  by  his  subjects,  died  at  Campania,  in 
the  seventieth  year  of  his  age,  A.  D.  79. 

The  late  emperor  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Titus, 
who,  on  account  of  his  amiable  virtues,  justice  and 
humanity,  obtained  the  appellation  of  the  “Delight  of 
mankind.”  Recollecting  one  evening  that  he  had  done 
no  act  of  beneficence  during  that  day,  he  exclaimed, 
“My  friends,  I have  lost  a day.”  His  reign  is  mem- 
orable for  the  great  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius, 
which  overwhelmed  the  cities  of  Herculaneum  and 


280 


Ancient  Empires. 


Pompeii,  and  caused  the  death  of  Pliny,  the  naturalist, 
whose  curiosity  led  him  too  near  the  scene.  Titus  died 
in  the  third  year  of  his  reign  and  in  the  forty-first  of 
his  age ; but  strong  suspicion  was  entertained  that  he 
was  poisoned  by  his  brother  Domitian  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  A.  D.  81. 

Domitian  was  another  Nero  in  his  character.  He 
caused  himself  to  be  worshiped  as  a god ; many  of  the 
most  illustrious  men  of  Rome  fell  victims  to  his  cruelty. 
He  banished  the  philosophers  from  the  city,  and  raised 
a dreadful  persecution  against  the  Christians.  He 
frequently  shut  himself  up  in  his  chamber,  and  amused 
himself  by  catching  flies  and  piercing  them  with  a 
bodkin,  hence  his  servant  being  asked  if  any  one  was 
with  the  emperor,  replied,  “No  not  even  a fly.”  His 
reign  was  signalized  by  the  success  of  the  Roman  arms 
in  Britain,  under  the  command  of  Agricola,  a distin- 
guished general  who  had  been  sent  to  the  country  by 
Vespasian,  and  conquered  all  the  southern  portion  of 
the  island.  Domitian  was  assassinated  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  his  wife,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign, 
A.  D.  96.  He  was  the  last  of  those  emperors  called  the 
twelve  Caesars;  Julius  Caesar,  the  dictator,  being  con- 
sidered the  first ; although  Augustus  was  the  first  who 
was  generally  styled  emperor. 

After  the  death  of  Domitian  Nerva  was  elected  to  the 
throne.  He  was  a man  distinguished  for  virtue  and 
clemency,  but  did  not  possess  sufficient  energy  to  sup- 
press the  disorders  of  the  empire ; and  having  adopted 
Trajan  for  his  successor  he  died  after  a short  reign  of 
sixteen  months. 


The  Romans. 


281 


Trajan,  a native  of  Seville,  in  Spain,  is  esteemed  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  powerful  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors; he  was  equally  distinguished  for  affability, 
clemency,  and  munificence.  On  presenting  the  sword 
to  the  prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard  he  made  use  of 
these  remarkable  words : “Make  use  of  it  for  me,  if  I 
do  my  duty;  if  not,  use  it  against  me.”  The  senate 
conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Optimus,  the  Best,  and 
that  body  was  long  accustomed  to  salute  every  newly 
elected  emperor  with  this  expression : “Reign  fortu- 

nately as  Augustus,  and  virtuously  as  Trajan.” 

Trajan  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  age; 
he  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  the  empire,  subdued  the 
Parthians,  brought  under  subjection  Assyria,  Arabia 
Felix  and  Mesopotamia ; and  in  commemoration  of  his 
victory  over  the  Dacians,  he  erected  a pillar  at  Rome, 
which  bears  his  name,  and  which  still  remains  as  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  that  city. 

He  was  a munificent  patron  of  literature,  and  in  his 
reign  Pliny,  the  younger;  Juvenal,  and  Plutarch  flour- 
ished. Although  this  prince  was  much  celebrated  for 
his  virtues,  still  his  character  has  been  tarnished  by  a 
want  of  equity  with  regard  to  the  Christians  who  were 
persecuted  during  his  reign.  He  died  of  apoplexy,  in 
the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age  and  the  twentieth  of  his 
reign,  A.  D.  117. 

Trajan  was  succeeded  by  Adrian,  his  nephew,  who, 
in  some  respects,  was  the  most  remarkable  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  His  administration  was  generally 
equitable  and  beneficent ; he  was  highly  skillful  in  all 
the  accomplishments  of  the  age ; he  composed  with 


282 


Ancient  Empires. 


great  beauty,  both  in  prose  and  verse ; he  pleaded  at  the 
bar,  and  was  one  of  the  best  orators  of  his  time.  Deem- 
ing the  limits  of  the  empire  too  extensive,  he  abandoned 
the  career  of  conquest,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  arts 
of  peace.  He  spent  thirteen  years  in  visiting  the  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  and  during  his  progress  he  re- 
formed abuses,  relieved  his  subjects  from  many  bur- 
dens and  rebuilt  various  cities.  While  in  Britain  he 
caused  a turf  wall  to  be  erected  across  the  island  from 
Carlisle  to  Newcastle  in  order  to  prevent  the  incursions 
of  the  Piets. 

He  rebuilt  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  changed  its 
name  to  Aelia  Capitolina.  In  consequence  of  an  in- 
surrection of  the  Jews,  he  sent  against  them  a pow- 
erful army  which  destroyed  about  one  thousand  of 
their  towns  and  nearly  six  hundred  thousand  of  these 
unfortunate  people;  he  then  banished  all  those  who 
remained  and  by  a public  decree,  forbade  them  to  re- 
turn within  view  of  their  native  soil.  He  passed  sev- 
eral wise  regulations,  among  which  was  a law  prohib- 
iting masters  to  kill  their  slaves,  as  had  been  before 
allowed,  but  ordained  that  they  should  be  tried  by  the 
laws  enacted  against  capital  offenses.  Adrian  named 
as  his  successor  Titus  Antoninus,  and  died  in  the 
twenty-second  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  sixty-second 
of  his  age. 

Titus  Antoninus,  more  commonly  called  Antoninus 
Pius,  had  a reign  of  twenty-three  years,  which  was 
marked  by  few  striking  events ; but  it  will  ever  be  dis- 
tinguished in  the  Roman  annals  for  the  public  and  pri- 
vate virtues  which  exalted  his  character,  It  was  his 


The  Romans. 


283 


favorite  maxim,  that  “he  would  rather  save  the  life  of 
one  citizen,  than  put  to  death  a thousand  enemies.” 
This  excellent  sovereign  adopted  for  his  successor 
his  son-in-law,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  surnamed 
the  Philosopher.  He  is  esteemed  the  best  model  of 
pagan  virtue  among  the  Roman  emperors;  and  “ap- 
peared,” says  an  ancient  author,  “like  some  benevo- 
lent deity,  diffusing  around  him  universal  peace  and 
happiness.”  He  was  attached,  both  by  nature  and  edu- 
cation, to  the  Stoic  philosophy,  which  he  admirably 
exemplified  in  his  life,  as  well  as  illustrated  in  his 
work,  entitled  “Meditations.” 

Distinguished  as  the  two  Antonines  were  for  jus- 
tice and  humanity,  yet  the  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tions  was  permitted,  in  some  degree,  during  their 
reigns.  It  was  to  the  former  of  the  two  that  Justin 
Martyr  presented  his  first  “Apology  for  Christianity” ; 
and  the  Roman  army  under  the  latter  experienced,  by 
means  of  a thunder  storm,  a remarkable  deliverance, 
which  has  been  represented  by  many  as  miraculous, 
and  which  gave  to  a legion  of  Christians,  then  serving 
under  Aurelius,  the  name  of  the  Thundering  Legion. 
The  name  of  the  wife  of  each  of  these  emperors  was 
Faustina,  and  both  of  them  were  noted  as  .women  of 
the  most  abandoned  character. 

Aurelius  died  in  the  nineteenth  year  of  his  reign,  and 
the  fifty-ninth  of  his  age.  He  was  the  last  of  the  sov- 
ereigns styled  “The  five  good  emperors”  ; and  the  glory 
and  prosperity  of  the  Roman  people  seemed  to  perish 
with  him.  From  this  time  we  behold  a succession  of 
sovereigns,  who,  with  few  exceptions,  were  either  weak 


284 


Ancient  Empires. 


or  vicious ; an  empire  grown  too  large,  sinking  by  its 
own  weight,  surrounded  by  barbarous  and  successful 
enemies  without,  and  torn  by  ambitious  and  cruel  fac- 
tions within;  the  principles  of  the  times  wholly  cor- 
rupted ; and  patriotism,  virtue,  and  literature,  grad- 
ually becoming  almost  extinct. 

With  the  reign  of  Aurelius,  the  prosperity  of  the 
empire  ceased ; and  from  the  accession  of  his  son 
Commodus,  its  decline  may  be  dated.  A more  strik- 
ing contrast  never  was  presented  than  in  the  characters 
of  the  father  and  son.  Aurelius  had  taken  him  to  aid 
in  command  against  the  barbarians ; and  on  his  death, 
despite  good  advice,  Commodus  purchased  a peace, 
that  he  might  give  himself  up  to  the  voluptuous  pleas- 
ures of  Rome.  There  he  became  a foul  and  loath- 
some debauchee ; and,  outraging  all  the  honorable  feel- 
ings of  the  Romans,  he  fought  as  a gladiator,  in  public 
spectacles,  for  the  amusement  of  the  vulgar. 

Conspirators  put  him  to  death  and  raised  Pertinax, 
prefect  of  the  city,  to  the  imperial  throne.  The  prae- 
torian guards  murmured  at  the  elevation  of  a man  of 
whose  virtue  they  were  assured,  and  who,  educated  in 
the  school  of  Aurelius,  was  little  likely  to  yield  to 
their  disorderly  demands,  or  shower  upon  them  the 
profuse  liberality  of  Commodus.  His  attempt  to  re- 
form the  financial  system  increased  their  hatred,  and 
in  less  than  three  months  from  the  time  they  swore 
allegiance,  a sedition  broke  out  in  the  camp.  Two  or 
three  hundred  of  the  guards  rushed  in  arms  to  the 
palace,  where  Pertinax,  securely  relying  on  his  inno- 
cence and  their  oath,  was  inhumanly  murdered.  A 


The  Romans. 


285 


most  disgraceful  scene  succeeded.  Returning  to  the 
camp  with  the  head  of  Pertinax  borne  as  a trophy,  the 
guards  now  offered  the  Roman  world  to  the  highest 
bidder. 

The  wealth  of  Didius  Julianus,  a vain  and  voluptuous 
senator,  enabled  him  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  ra- 
pacious praetorians,  who  immediately  completed  the 
contract,  proclaimed  him  emperor,  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  escorting  him  to  the  palace,  surrounded 
him  with  the  ensigns  of  imperial  dignity.  The  obse- 
quious senate,  though  attached  to  Pertinax,  yielded 
to  the  occasion,  and  ratified  the  election  of  the  praeto- 
rians ; but  the  indignant  legions  of  Britain,  of  Illyricum, 
and  Syria,  each  proclaimed  its  respective  general  as 
more  worthy  of  the  empire.  Severus,  who  was  in  Illy- 
ricum, at  the  head  of  hardy  and  disciplined  forces,  ac- 
customed to  contests  with  the  warlike  barbarians  of 
the  north,  advanced  toward  Rome.  By  his  contiguity 
to  Italy,  and  the  celerity  of  his  movements,  he  anti- 
cipated his  rivals,  and  in  sixty-six  days  from  the  ele- 
vation of  Julianus,  without  drawing  a sword,  he  was 
proclaimed  emperor  at  Rome.  The  praetorians  aban- 
doned the  victim  of  their  venality ; the  senate  deposed 
him,  and  he  was  executed  like  a common  criminal. 

Four  years  of  civil  war  succeeded,  during  which 
Severus,  with  a military  talent  approaching  to  that 
of  Julius  Caesar,  triumphed  over  his  rivals;  but  he 
treated  them  with  shocking  cruelty.  He  degraded  and 
banished  those  praetorians  who  had  been  engaged  in 
selling  the  empire.  A war  with  the  Caledonians,  which 
he  led  in  person,  occupied  him  in  his  later  years.  To 


286 


Ancient  Empires. 


keep  out  the  barbarians  from  the  north  he  rebuilt  with 
stone,  a wall  which  Hadrian  had  made  from  Solway 
Forth  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne.  He  died  at  York. 
His  sons,  Caracalla  and  Geta,  then  in  Britain,  were 
declared  joint  emperors.  Caracalla  murdered  his 
brother,  whom  their  mother  attempting  to  save,  he 
wounded  her  in  the  arm.  He  thus  obtained  sole  pos- 
session of  the  throne.  His  whole  reign  was  stigma- 
tized by  deeds  of  blood  and  infamy. 

Caracalla  extended  the  Roman  citizenship  to  all  the 
provinces.  The  tribute  received  from  the  provinces, 
which  Gibbon  estimates  at  a sum  equal  to  about  ioo,- 
000,000  of  dollars,  was  represented  by  Augustus  as 
not  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  government,  and  he 
artfully  contrived  to  make  the  Roman  citizens  submit 
to  taxation  by  impost.  Succeeding  emperors  had  in- 
creased their  burdens;  and  Caracalla  extended  the 
right  of  citizenship,  in  order  to  impose  on  the  foreign 
provinces  the  taxation  of  the  citizen,  while  he  failed 
to  relieve  them  from  the  tribute  of  the  stranger.  They 
felt  the  double  burden,  and  their  discontent  was  one 
of  the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the  empire.  Caracalla 
was  assassinated  in  Syria,  at  the  instigation  of  Macri- 
nus  praetorian  prefect.  Macrinus  was  raised  to  the 
throne,  but  shortly  deposed,  and  Heliogabalus,  a re- 
puted son  of  Caracalla,  was  invested  with  the  sover- 
eignty. His  short  reign  of  four  years  was  one  of  un- 
mingled infamy.  His  violent  death,  the  merited  pun- 
ishment of  his  crimes,  again  left  the  imperial  throne 
at  the  disposal  of  the  army. 

Alexander  Severus,  the  cousin  of  Heliogabalus,  was 


The  Romans. 


287 


invested  with  the  purple.  Amiable,  just,  and  humane, 
his  reign  is  like  a beam  of  light  amidst  surrounding 
darkness.  He  inherited  from  nature  a happy  dispo- 
sition, and  a superior  intellect,  and  was  educated  by 
a careful  mother.  Amidst  the  corrupting  influences  of 
regal  authority,  he  was  an  example  of  industry,  so- 
briety, and  regularity  of  life;  an  elegant  scholar,  an 
affectionate  son,  a wise  statesman,  and  an  able  gen- 
eral. He  restored  to  the  senate  many  of  their  rights, 
reduced  the  tribute  of  the  provinces,  and  sought  to 
enforce  discipline  in  the  army.  But  the  military  had 
become  too  strong  for  his  curbing  hand,  Ulpian,  the 
wisest  and  most  beloved  of  his  counselors,  had  in- 
curred the  hatred  of  the  guards,  for  attempting  to 
bring  them  to  order.  They  sought  his  life,  and  pur- 
sued him  to  the  presence  of  the  emperor.  Alexander 
commanded,  entreated,  and  covered  his  friend  with  his 
robe,  but  the  audacious  murderers  stabbed  him  through 
it. 

Alexander  went  into  Asia  to  conduct  a war  against 
the  Persians.  While  he  lay  at  Antioch,  a portion  of 
his  army  revolted.  Appearing  in  the  midst  of  the  in- 
furiated soldiery,  “Be  silent,”  said  he,  “in  the  pres- 
ence of  your  sovereign.”  “Reserve  your  shouts  for 
the  enemy,  or  I will  no  longer  allow  you  to  be  sol- 
diers.” They  brandished  their  swords,  and  rushed 
toward  him.  “Keep  your  courage,”  said  he,  “for  the 
field  of  battle.”  They  persisted  in  their  dangerous 
demands,  and  again  he  spoke : “Citizens,  no  longer 

soldiers,  lay  down  your  arms,  and  depart  to  your  re- 
spective habitations.”  The  boisterous  elements  of  se- 


288 


Ancient  Empires. 


dition  sunk  into  grief  and  shame,  and  the  soldiers 
obeyed.  After  a time  he  restored  their  arms ; and  this 
legion  ever  after  were  devoted  to  his  interest. 

The  ancient  monarchy  of  Persia  had  at  this  period 
revived,  under  a chief  named  Artaxerxes.  Repeated 
and  long  continued  wars  with  the  Romans,  had  weak- 
ened the  Parthian  power.  Of  this  Artaxerxes  availed 
himself,  to  produce  a general  revolt  of  the  Persians. 
A bloody  battle  ensued,  in  which  Artabanus,  the  Par- 
thian king,  was  defeated,  and  the  Persians  restored 
to  the  sovereignty  of  the  east.  Claiming  all  Lesser 
Asia  as  the  successor  of  Cyrus,  the  Persian  monarch 
came  into  collision  with  the  Roman  empire.  The  event 
of  the  war  was,  at  least,  so>  far  unsuccessful  to  the 
Romans,  that  Artaxerxes  retained  the  countries  which 
he  had  conquered.  Hardly  had  Alexander  returned 
from  the  Persian  war  before  he  went  north  to  encoun- 
ter a vast  swarm  of  barbarians,  who  threatened  to  over- 
whelm the  empire.  In  his  camp  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rhine,  while  successfully  pursuing  the  war,  this  prince, 
too  good  for  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  fell,  with  his 
mother,  a victim  to  another  mutiny  of  the  soldiers, 
fomented  by  Maximinus,  an  ambitious  aspirant  to  the 
throne. 

Maximinus  was  born  in  Thrace.  His  father  was  a 
Goth  and  his  mother  an  Alan.  Thirty-two  years  be- 
fore Severus,  halting  his  army  in  Thrace,  to  celebrate 
games  at  wrestling,  the  young  barbarian,  Maximinus, 
of  the  gigantic  height  of  eight  feet,  and  of  size  and 
strength  in  proportion,  presented  himself,  and  in  a 
rude  dialect,  asked  to  be  admitted  as  a competitor. 


The  Romans. 


289 


His  prodigious  exploits  astonished  the  emperor,  and 
he  permitted  him  to  enlist  as  a common  soldier. 
From  thence  he  rose  by  degrees  till  he  attained  a 
high  command  in  the  army.  But  without  gratitude 
or  mercy  he  had  nothing  but  brute  force  to  recom- 
mend him.  He  persuaded  the  soldiers  that  Alexander 
was  effeminate.  They  slew  him  and  proclaimed  the 
barbarian  emperor.  He  was  suspicious  of  contempt 
from  the  well  born  and  learned  and  he  hated  and  de- 
stroyed them.  The  senate  refused  to  sanction  the  nom- 
ination of  the  army ; and  though  Maximinus  continued 
the  German  war  with  success,  his  cruelties  created  dis- 
affection, which,  when  he  made  the  taxes  of  the  prov- 
inces intolerable,  broke  into  revolt. 

The  interval  from  the  reign  of  Maximinus  and  that 
of  Diocletian,  was  filled  by  sixteen  reigns,  which  fur- 
nish little  that  is  pleasing  or  interesting.  Of  all  the 
emperors  who  successively  occupied  the  throne  dur- 
ing that  period  of  forty-six  years,  Claudius  and  Taci- 
tus alone  died  a natural  death.  The  emperor  Valerian, 
in  a war  with  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner.  The  Persian  monarch  treated  his 
captive  with  the  greatest  indignity  and  cruelty.  He 
used  him  as  a footstool  for  mounting  his  horse  and 
finally  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death,  then  caused 
him  to  be  flayed  and  his  skin  to  be  painted  red,  and 
suspended  in  one  of  the  Persian  temples,  as  a monu- 
ment of  disgrace  to  the  Romans. 

The  reign  of  Aurelian  was  distinguished  for  brilliant 
military  achievements.  He  defeated  the  Goths,  and 
repelled  the  incursions  of  the  Germans;  but  his  most 


290 


Ancient  Empires. 


renowned  victory,  was  that  over  Zenobia,  the  famous 
queen  of  Palmyra,  who  fell  into  his  hands;  her  secre- 
tary Longinus,  the  celebrated  critic,  was  put  to  death 
by  the  order  of  the  conqueror.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
Aurelian  was  honored  with  a most  splendid  triumph ; 
Zenobia  was  reserved  to  grace  the  scene,  bound  in 
chains  of  gold,  and  decked  with  a profusion  of  pearls 
and  diamonds. 

Diocletian,  who  was  the  son  of  a Dalmatian  slave, 
rose  by  his  merit  from  the  rank  of  a common  soldier 
to  that  of  an  eminent  commander,  and  was  finally  ele- 
vated to  the  throne,  on  the  death  of  Numerian,  A.  D. 
284. 

Two  years  after  his  accession  he  associated  with 
himself  in  government,  his  friend  Maximin;  and  in 
292  they  took  two  other  colleagues,  Galerius  and  Con- 
stantius,  each  bearing  the  title  of  Caesar.  The  em- 
pire was  now  divided  into  four  parts,  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  two  emperors  and  two  Caesars,  each  nomi- 
nally supreme,  but  in  reality  controlled  by  the  superior 
talents  of  Diocletian. 

At  this  time  happened  the  tenth  and  last  persecution 
of  the  Christians,  which  continued  for  several  years 
with  so  much  violence,  that  the  tyrants  boasted  that 
they  had  extinguished  the  Christian  name. 

Diocletian  and  Maximin,  in  the  midst  of  their  tri- 
umphs, surprised  the  world  by  resigning  their  dignities 
on  the  same  day  and  both  retiring  into  private  station, 
A.  D.  304.  It  is  generally  believed  that  they  were 
compelled  to  take  this  step  by  Galerius,  who,  together 
with  Constantius,  was  immediately  afterwards  acknowl- 


The  Romans. 


291 


edged  emperor.  Diocletian  seems  to  have  been  con- 
tented with  his  lot ; he  retired  to  Salona,  in  his  native 
country,  Dalmatia,  where  he  lived  eight  years,  and 
amused  himself  in  cultivating  a small  garden.  Maxi- 
min  attempted  several  times,  but  in  vain,  to  resume 
the  sovereign  power,  which  he  had  abdicated,  and  even 
to  murder  his  son-in-law,  Constantine;  but  being  de- 
tected he  slew  himself  in  despair. 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  FROM  THE  ADOPTION  OF  CHRIS- 
TIANITY. 

Constantine  possessed  a lofty  and  majestic  stature, 
a bold,  open  countenance,  and  a graceful  deportment. 
His  constitution  was  made  healthy  by  vigorous  exercise 
in  youth,  and  preserved  by  temperance  and  sobriety 
in  later  life.  In  business  he  was  indefatigable,  and 
he  looked  with  a vigilant  eye  upon  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment; while,  by  rendering  kindness  to  all  who  ap- 
proached him  he  secured  love,  at  the  same  time  that 
his  talents  and  virtues  commanded  respect.  Such  was 
Constantine  while  dangers  surrounded  him ; but  when 
released  from  fear  and  placed  above  responsibility,  his 
character  seems  to  have  fallen  from  its  elevation. 
Among  other  unworthy  acts  he  is  charged  with  jeal- 
ous cruelty  to  his  son. 

Two  events  mark  the  boldness  of  his  genius,  and 
render  his  name  memorable.  The  one  was  his  removal 
of  the  seat  of  the  Roman  empire  to  Constantinople; 
the  other  was  his  adoption  of  Christianity  as  the  re- 
ligion of  the  empire.  Whether  Constantine  embraced 
it  from  conviction  of  its  truth,  or  from  policy,  is  mat- 


292 


Ancient  Empires. 


ter  of  dispute.  Certain  it  is  that  this  religion,  though 
receiving  from  the  Roman  power  only  silent  obloquy, 
or  active  persecution,  had  extended  among  the  people ; 
so  that  Constantine  strengthened  himself  in  the  affec- 
tions of  the  soldiers  by  adopting  it.  At  this  period,  too, 
Christianity  might  number  more  writers  of  talent  and 
literary  abilities  than  paganism.  Society  had  in  its 
morals  assumed  a new  and  more  healthful  tone. 
Women,  taught  that  they  were  co-heirs  with  men  in 
the  blessings  of  the  gospel,  felt  their  equal  value  as 
immortal  beings  and  thus  learned  to  respect  themselves, 
and  insure  the  respect  of  men.  When  such  had  be- 
come the  influence  of  Christianity  in  the  realm,  world- 
ly ambition  pointed  to  the  course  which  the  emperor 
pursued  in  declaring  himself  a Christian ; and  surely 
it  was  not  in  the  spirit  of  Christ,  who  said,  “My  king- 
dom is  not  of  this  world/’  that  Constantine  made  it 
the  religion  of  the  empire;  and  from  henceforth  we 
find  its  heavenly  influence  sullied  by  mingling  with 
earthly  things.  He  made  a new  division  of  the  Ro- 
man world  into  four  Prefectures,  which  were  subdi- 
vided into  diocesses,  and  these  into  provinces.  No 
particular  bishop  was  regarded  as  head  of  the  whole 
church,  but  the  emperor  was  such  in  point  of  fact.  In 
this  capacity  he  called  the  first  ecclesiastical  council, 
or  collection  of  bishops  at  Nice,  he  having,  in  the 
controversy  between  Athanasius  and  Arius,  taken  sides 
against  the  latter.  The  council  in  this  respect  agreed 
with  the  emperor. 

If  after  the  period  of  Constantine,  it  shall  appear 
that  human  passions,  and  natural  causes,  contributed  to 


The  Romans. 


293 


the  extension  of  a religion  whose  divinity  is  attested 
by  a severe  and  holy  purity  before  unknown  to  the 
world,  let  it  be  remembered  that  what  had  previously 
occurred  leaves  a chasm  in  the  chain  of  human  means, 
by  which  Christianity  was  established,  that  cannot  be 
supplied  but  on  the  supposition  of  divine  agency.  It 
is  in  vain  that  infidelity  seeks  to  shake  our  faith,  by  say- 
ing that  when  men  were  offered  eternal  life,  on  con- 
dition of  their  abandoning  the  pleasures  of  this,  they 
accepted  the  offer,  because  it  was  an  advantageous 
bargain ; so  long  as  they  utterly  fail  in  explaining 
how  the  apostles  and  first  teachers  of  this  religion 
got  their  own  invincible  faith,  that  the  doctrine  was 
indeed  true?  a faith  which  made  them  disregard  la- 
bor, sufferings  and  death.  Of  this  no  account  exists 
but  in  the  New  Testament. 

On  the  death  of  Constantine  his  dominions  were  di- 
vided between  his  three  sons,  Constantine,  Constan- 
tius  and  Constans.  The  youth  of  these  princes  was 
not,  like  that  of  their  father,  spent  in  improving  exer- 
cises, but  in  the  effeminacy  of  a court.  He  knew  that 
he  had  his  fortune  to  make ; they  felt  that  theirs 
was  secured.  Hence  their  administration  wanted  the 
vigor  of  his,  while  they  imitated  his  ambition  and  cru- 
elty. During  the  first  year  of  their  reign  two  uncles 
and  seven  cousins  were  sacrificed  to  their  jealous  fears. 
With  the  exception  of  Gallus  and  Julian,  sons  of  the 
brother  of  Constantine,  whose  youth  and  feeble  con- 
stitution alone  saved  them,  these  princes  destroyed  all 
the  male  members  of  the  Constantine  family ; and 
they  at  length  turned  their  arms  against  each  other. 


294 


Ancient  Empires. 


Constantine,  who  governed  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
empire,  found  himself  early  involved  in  a Persian  war. 
The  fame  of  his  father  had,  during  his  life,  checked 
all  encroachments  on  the  eastern  provinces.  Sapor, 
the  grandson  of  Narses,  was  now  on  the  Persian  throne, 
and  had  for  several  campaigns,  waged  a successful 
war  upon  the  provinces.  Constantine  marched  against 
him — the  Persian  arms  triumphed  at  Singara.  The 
monarchs  at  length  withdrew  their  forces  and  a peace 
was  concluded.  After  Constantine’s  return  a dispute 
between  him  and  Constans  ended  in  his  violent  death ; 
and  left  Constans  sole  master  of  the  west.  He  main- 
tained his  authority  for  ten  years,  when  he  fell  a 
victim  to  the  ambitions  of  Magnentius,  the  general  of 
the  Gallic  legions,  who  assumed  the  purple.  Constan- 
tius,  to  secure  the  undivided  sovereignty  of  the  em- 
pire, fought  a bloody  battle  with  Magnentius  and  de- 
feated him.  Of  the  veteran  soldiers  of  the  empire, 
54,000  were  left  dead  upon  the  field ; and  Magnentius, 
despairing  of  the  crown,  put  an  end  to  his  life. 

The  civil  wars  had  given  the  barbarians  an  oppor- 
tunity of  renewing  their  depredations  upon  the  fron- 
tier provinces.  The  Franks  and  the  Alemanni  had 
devastated  Gaul.  Flourishing  towns  were  laid  in 
ashes  and  the  inhabitants  compelled  to  flee  from  the 
country  to  the  fortified  cities,  where  they  were  obliged 
to  depend  for  subsistence  upon  the  scanty  supply  of 
grain  raised  within  the  walls.  In  the  east  the  Sar- 
matians  had  passed  the  Danube,  and  the  Persian  mon- 
arch, now  returned  from  a victorious  expedition  against 
the  Scythians,  again  threatened  the  provinces  of  Asia. 


The  Romans. 


295 


Constantins  found  himself  unequal  to  the  weight  of 
the  empire,  and  was  constrained  to  look  for  some  one 
with  whom  to  divide  its  cares.  His  cousin  Julian, 
now  the  only  remaining  member  of  the  Constantine 
family,  had  been  left  to  pursue  his  studies  in  obscurity, 
among  the  Grecian  philosophers.  Constantius  appoint- 
ed him  Caesar  and  gave  him  command  of  the  provinces 
of  Gaul.  He  conducted  in  person  the  war  with  the 
Sarmatians,  whom  he  defeated  and  compelled  to  sue 
for  peace. 

Julian  (called  the  Apostate  from  his  having  forsaken 
Christianity)  whose  abilities  for  action  had  been  de- 
spised on  account  of  his  love  of  study,  showed  him- 
self an  able  general  in  a successful  contest  with  the 
Franks  and  Alemanni.  The  fame  of  his  hardy  per- 
severance and  successful  enterprise  spread  through  the 
empire  and  increased  the  already  awakened  jealousy  of 
Constantius.  He  issued  an  order  commanding  a large 
detachment  of  the  veterans  who  were  under  Julian, 
to  march  to  the  aid  of  the  eastern  legions.  The  troops, 
reluctant  to  enter  upon  what  they  deemed  a foreign 
service,  and  unwilling  to  leave  a general  whom  they 
loved  for  an  emperor  whom  they  despised,  refused 
obedience  and  at  once  proclaimed  Julian  emperor. 
With  feigned  reluctance  he  accepted  the  crown  and  to 
enforce  his  claim,  marched  with  secrecy  and  despatch 
to  the  attack  of  Constantinople.  Constantius,  relin- 
quishing the  Persian  war,  marched  to  meet  him;  but 
his  d^ath  relieved  the  empire  from  the  horrors  of  civil 
contention. 

The  reign  of  Julian  was  memorable  for  the  re-es- 


296 


Ancient  Empires. 


tablishment  of  paganism.  The  emperor  was,  doubtless, 
above  believing  in  its  fooleries  himself ; but  he  thought 
like  most  of  the  early  philosophers  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
that  the  people  must  have  some  religion  coined  for 
their  use.  His  ideas  of  Christianity  were  associated 
with  the  character  and  conduct  towards  his  family  of 
the  Constantines,  its  supporters;  and  he  probably 
thought  that  Christianity,  as  well  as  paganism,  was 
such  a coinage;  not  reflecting  that  whatever  God  has 
made  his  creatures  to  need  he  invariably  provides. 
Man  is  created  to  need  religion ; for  since  the  dawn  of 
history  there  have  been  double  dealing  traffickers  in 
the  article.  Among  these  stand  prominent  the  Egyp- 
tian, Greek,  and  Roman  priests,  the  Delphian  oracu- 
lars,  and  the  Druids  of  Britain.  These  manufacturers 
of  fable  and  impositon,  supplied  the  market  kept  ever 
open  by  man’s  mental  craving;  and  they  were  repaid 
by  his  submission  of  body,  soul  and  estate.  Unlike 
these,  the  Christian  teachers  believed  that  Christianity 
was  in  truth  that  spiritual  food  which  the  Almighty 
Parent  had  himself  sent  down  to  satisfy  the  desires 
of  the  famishing  soul.  To  this  view  of  Christianity, 
which  exalts  it  over  all  others  as  the  only  true  religion, 
Julian  himself  gave  an  incidental  testimony ; for  he 
recommended  that  with  the  heathen  ceremonies,  the 
people  should  follow  the  Christian  morality.  This  em- 
peror did  not  indeed  revive  the  persecutions  of  former 
pagan  sovereigns,  or  prohibit  the  worship  of  the  Chris- 
tions ; yet  he  removed  them  from  offices  of  trust  and 
from  the  care  of  the  education  of  youth  and  oppressed 
them  in  various  ways. 


The  Romans. 


29? 


Julian  settled  the  concerns  of  the  west  and  pro- 
ceeded into  Asia.  After  wintering  in  Antioch  he 
marched  toward  Persia,  ravaged  the  plains  of  Mes- 
opotamia, passed  the  Euphrates  and  spread  devas- 
tation through  a part  of  Syria.  He  attempted,  with 
the  strenuous  aid  of  the  Jews,  to  rebuild  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  in  order  to  disprove  the  prophecy  of  Christ. 
The  foundations  of  the  temple  were  laid,  but  they 
were  destroyed.  “Horrible  balls  of  fire,”  says  a pa- 
gan historian,  “breaking  out  from  the  foundation  with 
frequent  and  reiterated  attacks,  rendered  the  place  in- 
accessible to  the  workmen.  The  victorious  element  con- 
tinuing in  this  manner,  seemed  obstinately  bent  to  drive 
them  to  a distance  and  the  hopeless  attempt  was  aban- 
doned.” Christians  and  pagans  alike  believed  that  the 
doom  of  a supernatural  power  forbade  the  work ; and 
it  was  no  more  attempted. 

At  the  passage  of  the  Tigris  the  Romans  obtained 
a victory  over  the  Persians,  but  here  their  successes 
ended.  Julian  was  induced  to  burn  his  fleet  at  the 
suggestion  of  a treacherous  Persian,  who,  in  the  char- 
acter of  a deserter,  had  entered  his  camp.  As  the 
Romans  advanced  their  provisions  failed.  The  cattle 
were  driven  away,  the  inhabitants  had  departed,  and 
the  country,  naturally  fertile,  presented  only  smoking 
ruins.  The  emperor  sought  to  retrace  his  steps,  but 
the  Persian  prince,  with  a numerous  army,  appeared 
in  sight,  hovered  around,  and  harassed  his  retreat. 
Attempting  to  force  his  way  Julian  was  mortally 
wounded.  His  dying  moments  were  passed,  not  in 
sacrificing  to  the  gods,  but  in  philosophical  discourse. 


298 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  unexpected  death  of  the  leader  spread,  in  the 
harassed  army,  confusion  and  dismay.  The  officers 
could  not  agree  upon  a successor,  when  the  name  of 
Jovian,  a man  of  no  military  renown,  but  attached  to 
the  household  of  Julian,  was  circulated  among  the 
troops  and  he  was  immediately  declared  emperor. 

Amid  their  deliberations  and  sorrows  the  legions 
had  been  compelled  to  continue  their  retreat,  surround- 
ed by  the  Persians,  and  momentarily  subject  to  their 
vexatious  and  often  fatal  attacks.  Four  days  after 
the  death  of  Julian  the  disheartened  army  reached  the 
city  of  Susa.  The  Tigris  was  still  to  be  crossed  and 
they  were  almost  in  despair  of  effecting  their  escape. 
Here  Sapor  sent  them  proposals  of  peace,  and  although 
they  were  disadvantageous,  they  were  accepted.  The 
provinces  beyond  the  Tigris,  which  Diocletian  had  ob- 
tained of  Narses,  were  then  ceded  to  Persia,  and  the 
impregnable  city  of  Nisibis,  which  had.  so  often  re- 
sisted the  Persian  arms,  together  with  some  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Mesopotamia,  were  surrendered ; 
when  the  army  were  suffered  to  pursue  their  home- 
ward way  in  ignominious  peace. 

On  the  accession  of  Jovian  Christianity  again  became 
the  established  religion  of  the  empire.  But  his  reign 
was  terminated  by  death  before  he  reached  Con- 
stantinople. Valentinian,  commander  of  the  guards, 
was  uanimously  proclaimed  his  successor.  He  ap- 
pointed his  brother  Valens  as  his  colleague,  commit- 
ting to  him  the  eastern  provinces,  while  himself  re- 
tired to  the  western,  where  he  prosecuted  the  war 
against  the  barbarians  with  considerable  success.  Yet 


The  Romans. 


299 


the  decline  of  the  empire  became  more  and  more  ap- 
parent. The  civil  wars  of  the  sons  of  Constantine  had 
destroyed  vast  numbers  of  soldiers,  and  left  the  fron- 
tiers exposed  to  the  depredations  of  the  barbarians. 
The  valor  and  energy  of  Julian  had,  indeed,  for  a 
moment,  checked  their  incursions,  but  his  unsuccess- 
ful Persian  war  had  still  farther  weakened  the  mili- 
tary force  of  the  empire,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
the  peace,  by  which  Jovian  began  its  dismemberment. 
Valentinian  died  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign,  and 
left  the  empire  to  his  son  Gratian,  with  the  condition 
that  a younger  son  named  Valentinian,  then  an  infant, 
should  be  associated  with  him. 

The  Goths,  who  had  repeatedly  invaded  the  empire, 
again  appeared  on  its  frontier;  not  now  indeed  in  the 
character  of  hostile  barbarians,  but  of  humble  sup- 
pliants, themselves  driven  from  their  dominions.  The 
Huns,  a vast  and  terrible  race  inhabiting  the  north 
of  Asia,  and  more  barbarous  than  either  the  Goths 
or  Germans,  had  been  precipitated  by  the  wars  in  the 
east,  upon  the  frontiers  of  Europe.  Under  Attila, 
called  the  “Scourge  of  God,”  they  had  subdued  the 
nations  of  the  Alani,  who  inhabited  the  regions  be- 
tween the  Volga  and  Tanais,  and  advanced  upon  the 
kingdom  of  the  Goths.  Their  first  appearance  on  the 
Gothic  frontier  was  in  the  declining  days  of  the  great 
chief,  Hermanric,  whose  dominion,  it  is  said,  extended 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Danube  and  lake  Maeotis;  and 
who  had  united  under  his  sway  the  two  great  portions 
of  the  Gothic  race,  the  western  or  Visigoths,  and  the 
eastern  or  Ostrogoths;  the  former  having  been  gov- 


300 


Ancient  Empires. 


erned  by  the  house  of  the  Balti,  the  latter  by  that  of 
Amali.  The  death  of  Hermanric  prevented  the  united 
efforts  of  the  Goths  in  checking  the  invaders  and  the 
Ostrogoths  soon  submitted.  The  Visigoths,  in  terror 
as  the  desolating  “Scourge”  approached,  supplicated 
the  emperor  Valens  for  vacant  lands  on  the  southern 
banks  of  the  Danube,  engaging  to  guard  the  frontier 
from  the  dreaded  enemy. 

Valens  agreed  to  admit  the  Gothic  nation  within 
the  empire  on  certain  conditions,  to  which  they  ac- 
ceded, but  the  most  important  of  which,  the  relin- 
quishment of  their  arms,  they  afterwards  evaded.  The 
nation  was  transported  across  the  Danube  to  improve 
the  waste  lands  of  Thrace.  A million  of  barbarians, 
who  could  bring  into  the  field  200,000  warriors,  were 
thus  admitted  to  a peaceful  settlement  within  the  bosom 
of  the  empire0  The  emperor  granted  the  Goths  per- 
mission to  engage  in  traffic;  but  the  avarice  of  the 
Roman  ministers  not  only  rendered  the  permission 
useless,  but  destructive  to  them.  At  length  their 
property  was  exhausted  in  procuring  means  of  sub- 
sistence and  they  were  compelled  to  sell  their  children 
to  obtain  bread.  The  treachery  of  the  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  Marcianopodis  towards  Fritigern,  a valiant 
Goth,  enkindled  his  wrath.  He  summoned  his  coun- 
trymen to  arms  and  led  them  to  Msesia,  which  they 
overran  and  desolated;  and  then  proceeded  to  threat- 
en the  capital. 

Valens  now  sought  to  crush  a nation,  whom  he  had 
first  introduced  into  the  heart  of  the  empire,  and 
then  forced  by  ill  usage  to  become  his  enemies.  Gra- 


The  Romans. 


301 


tian,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  father  in  the  west, 
was  summoned  to  his  aid,  but  was  prevented  by  an 
eruption  of  the  Alemanni,  which  employed  his  whole 
resources.  The  Visigoths,  meanwhile,  had  formed  an 
alliance  with  a body  of  Ostrogoths,  who  had  also  pro- 
cured a settlement  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Dan- 
ube, and  with  some  scattered  hordes  of  the  Alani  and 
Huns.  On  the  plains  of  Adrianople,  Valens  met  the 
barbarians,  and  the  courage  and  skill  of  the  Roman 
legions  failed  in  the  encounter.  The  emperor  was 
wounded  and  conveyed  to  a building,  which  being  fired 
by  the  enemy,  he  perished  in  the  flames.  Two-thirds 
of  the  imperial  army  were  destroyed ; the  remainder 
fled  and  the  Goths  ravaged  the  country  to  the  suburbs 
of  Constantinople. 

Gratian,  meanwhile  victorious  over  the  Alemanni, 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  east.  He  learned  on  his 
journey  the  death  of  Valens  and  the  defeat  of  his 
army;  and  sensible  of  his  inability  to  sustain  the 
weight  of  an  empire  sinking  under  its  numerous  foes, 
he  associated  with  himself  in  the  government,  Theo- 
dosius, a native  of  Spain.  His  father  was  a general 
who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  reign  of  Valen- 
tinian,  but  was  unjustly  put  to  death,  by  order  of 
Gratian  himself.  But  such  was  the  towering  genius 
of  the  son,  such  his  reputation  for  wisdom  and  mag- 
nanimity of  temper,  that  the  emperor,  in  his  hour  of 
peril,  scrupled  not  to  admit  him  as  his  partner.  Theo- 
dosius was  free  from  the  vainglory  of  conquest,  and 
he  pursued  at  first  a careful  and  watchful  policy. 
From  Thessalonica,  which  he  made  his  headquarters, 


302 


Ancient  Empires. 


he  kept  his  eye  fixed  upon  the  barbarians,  and  availed 
himself  of  every  judicious  opportunity  of  wasting 
their  forces,  or  gaining  over  their  leaders. 

Fritigern  died  and  disunion  among  the  Goths  en- 
sued; the  different  tribes  pursued  each  its  own  indi- 
vidual interest  without  concert  or  design ; and  in  four 
years  from  the  death  of  Valens,  the  policy  of  Theo- 
dosius procured  an  advantageous  peace,  the  conditions 
of  which  were  arranged  in  the  neighborhood  of  Con- 
stantinople. Theodosius  invited  their  aged  chief, 
Athanaric,  to  visit  the  capital,  and  partake  the  hospi- 
talities of  his  palace.  The  chieftain  was  astonished  at 
the  grandeur  and  magnificence  of  the  objects  present- 
ed to  his  view.  “Truly,”  exclaimed  he,  “the  em- 
peror of  the  Romans  is  a god  upon  earth,  and  the  pre- 
sumptuous man  who  dares  to  lift  his  hand  against 
him  is  guilty  of  his  own  blood.”  Athanaric  sickened 
and  died.  Theodosius  paid  the  most  respectful  hon- 
ors to  his  remains,  and  his  grateful  Goths,  thus  con- 
verted into  friends,  entered  the  Roman  legions,  de- 
claring that  while  Theodosius  lived  they  would  ac- 
knowledge no  other  chief. 

While  Theodosius  was  thus  calming  the  disorders 
of  the  east  a new  insurrection  had  arisen  in  the  west. 
The  indolence  of  Gratian  had  alienated  the  affections 
of  his  subjects.  Maximus,  at  the  head  of  his  legions, 
entered  Gaul,  where  he  was  hailed  as  emperor.  Gra- 
tian, who  was  at  Paris,  fled  to  Lyons,  and  was  there 
assassinated  through  the  intrigues  of  Maximus,  who 
next  invaded  Italy  and  compelled  the  widowed  em- 
press Justina,  with  her  young  son  Valentinian  II., 


The  Romans. 


303 


and  her  daughter  Galla,  to  flee  for  succor  to  the 
emperor  of  the  east.  Theodosius  did  not  invite  them 
to  his  court,  but  met  them  at  Thessalonica,  whither 
they  had  come  by  sea.  His  wife  being  dead,  he  mar- 
ried the  beautiful  Galla,  and  then  marched,  at  the 
head  of  a hardy  and  disciplined  army,  into  Pannonia. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Save  he  met  and  defeated  the 
forces  of  Maximus  and  executed  the  usurper.  The 
provinces  returned  to  their  allegiance,  and  Theodosius, 
superior  to  the  seductions  of  prosperity,  so  often  fatal 
to  virtue,  magnanimously  restored  to  Valentinian  the 
throne  of  Milan  and  added  to  his  dominions  the  prov- 
inces of  Britain  and  Gaul.  But  the  young  prince  soon 
fell  a victim  to  domestic  treason.  Theodosius  thus 
became  sole  monarch  of  the  empire,  now  for  the  last 
time  united  under  the  sway  of  one  sovereign. 

Since  the  reign  of  Constantine  Christianity  had  been 
rapidly  declining  from  its  primitive  purity,  and  am- 
bitious men  sought,  through  its  medium,  to  gratify 
the  unhallowed  lust  of  power.  By  gradually  extend- 
ing the  authority  of  the  bishops,  the  foundation  was  laid 
of  that  abominable  oppression,  which  for  so  many 
ages  was  to  weigh  down  the  moral  and  intellectual 
energies  of  Europe.  During  the  reign  of  Theodosius, 
the  ecclesiastical  power  manifested  itself  as  already 
superior  to  the  civil.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  had 
forbidden  to  the  empress  Justina,  who  reigned  in  the 
name  of  her  son  Valentinian  II.,  the  use  of  a chapel, 
where  she  might  worship  agreeably  to  her  belief  in 
the  Arian  doctrines.  The  bishop  next  sternly  and 
openly  denounced  her  as  a heretic  and  when  she  passed 


304 


Ancient  Empires. 


an  edict  to  banish  him  he  refused  to  obey;  nor  could 
she  compel  his  obedience,  or  punish  his  contumacy. 
Theodosius  had,  in  a moment  of  passion,  given  the 
only  cruel  order  which  stains  his  equitable  govern- 
ment, that  of  putting  to  the  sword  the  offending  peo- 
ple of  Thessalonica.  He  repented  and  sought,  too  late, 
to  hinder  its  execution.  Ambrose  boldly  reproached 
him  and  exacted  of  him  public  penance ; and  the  mas- 
ter of  the  world,  in  a mournful  and  suppliant  posture, 
with  sighs  and  tears,  confessed  and  deplored  his  crime, 
in  the  presence  of  the  congregation. 

Theodosius  died  at  Milan,  a few  months  after  he 
had  quelled  the  disturbances  consequent  on  the  death 
of  Valentinian,  lamented  by  the  church,  to  which  he 
had  been  reconciled ; by  the  Roman  people,  whom 
he  had  governed  with  moderation  ; and  even  by  the  van- 
quished provinces,  who  had  experienced  his  kindness. 
Before  his  death  he  divided  the  empire  between  his 
two  young  sons ; and  this  division  proving  permanent, 
becomes  an  important  epoch  in  history. 

Honorius  and  Arcadius,  sons  of  Theodosius,  suffered 
the  northern  barbarians  to  enter  the  empire  and  to 
possess  themselves  of  several  of  the  most  fertile  prov- 
inces. The  Goths,  under  the  famous  Alaric,  spread 
their  devastations  to  the  very  walls  of  Constantinople, 
and  filled  all  Greece  with  the  terror  of  their  arms. 
Alaric  then  penetrated  into  Italy  at  the  head  of  a pow- 
erful army,  but  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the 
Romans  under  the  command  of  Stilico.  After  the 
death  of  this  general  Alaric  invaded  Italy  a second 
time,  and  having  taken  and  pillaged  several  cities,  he 


The  Romans. 


305 


at  length  pitched  his  camp  before  the  walls  of  Rome. 
This  famous  city,  which  had  for  ages  been  the  mis- 
tress of  the  world  and  had  enriched  herself  by  the 
spoils  of  vanquished  nations,  was  now  reduced  to  the 
greatest  extremities  by  famine  and  pestilence. 

Rome  was  finally  taken  by  Alaric,  who  gave  up  the 
city  to  be  plundered  by  his  soldiers,  with  a charge  to 
spill  the  blood  of  none  but  those  whom  they  found  in 
arms,  and  to  spare  all  those  who  took  refuge  in  the 
churches.  The  fearful  devastation  continued  for  six 
days,  during  which  the  fierce  barbarians,  notwithstand- 
ing the  injunctions  of  the  chieftain,  indulged  their  cru- 
elty and  ferocity  without  pity  or  restraint.  Alaric 
now  prepared  to  invade  Sicily  and  Africa,  but  death 
suddenly  put  an  end  to  all  his  ambitious  projects ; but 
the  Goths  having  elected  Ataulphus  for  their  leader, 
took  possession  of  the  southern  part  of  Gaul,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  their  kingdom  in  Spain. 

A few  years  after  the  sacking  of  Rome  by  Alaric 
the  country  was  again  devastated  by  the  Huns,  a bar- 
barous people  of  Scythian  origin,  under  the  command 
of  Attila,  their  king,  styled  the  “Scourge  of  God.” 
Having  overrun  the  eastern  empire,  he  invaded  Gaul 
with  an  army  of  five  hundred  thousand  men  ; but  he  was 
defeated  on  the  plains  of  Chalons  by  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Romans  under  Aetius  and  the  Goths 
under  Theodoric,  with  a loss  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
thousand  men.  The  warlike  spirit  of  Attila  was 
checked  by  this  defeat,  but  not  subdued ; placing  him- 
self again  at  the  head  of  his  army,  he  shortly  after- 
ward invaded  Italy,  and  having  extended  his  ravages 


306 


Ancient  Empires. 


to  the  gates  of  Rome,  compelled  Valentinian  III.  to 
purchase  a peace  by  the  payment  of  immense  sums  of 
money,  with  his  sister  Honoria  in  marriage.  Attila 
died  shortly  after  this  event,  and  his  body  is  said  to 
have  been  buried,  enclosed  in  three  coffins,  the  first 
of  gold,  the  second  of  silver,  and  the  third  of  iron ; 
and  the  men  who  dug  the  grave  were  put  to  death, 
lest  they  should  reveal  the  place  of  his  burial. 

Every  circumstance  now  seemed  to  hasten  the  down- 
fall of  the  empire  which  had  been  long  on  the  verge 
of  ruin.  Aetius,  the  only  man  capable  of  defending 
it  against  its  numerous  enemies,  was  slain  by  the  hand 
of  Valentinian  himself,  on  a pretended  charge  of  con- 
spiracy. 

Shortly  after  this  event  Valentinian  was  assassinated 
in  his  turn,  at  the  instigation  of  Petronius  Maximus, 
who  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  his  stead  and  the 
empress  Eudoxia  invited  Genseric,  king  of  the  Van- 
dals, to  avenge  the  murder  of  her  husband.  He  eager- 
ly embraced  the  opportunity,  landed  in  Italy  with  a 
numerous  army  of  Moors  and  Vandals,  took  the  city 
of  Rome,  which  he  gave  up  to  his  soldiers  to  be  pil- 
laged for  eleven  days  ; and  after  having  destroyed  many 
of  the  monuments  of  art  and  literature  which  Alaric 
had  spared  and  enriched  himself  with  the  spoils  of 
the  city,  he  returned  to  Carthage. 

From  the  reign  of  Valentinian  III.  the  western  em- 
pire dragged  out  a precarious  existence  under  nine 
successive  emperors,  for  the  space  of  twenty-one  years, 
until  its  final  termination  in  476,  by  the  resignation  of 
Romulus  Augustus,  the  last  of  its  emperors,  to  Odoacer, 


The  Romans. 


307 


the  chief  of  the  Heruli,  who  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Italy.  Thus  terminated  the  Roman  empire  in  the 
west,  twelve  hundred  and  twenty-nine  years  after  the 
building  of  the  city,  and  five  hundred  and  seven  years 
after  the  battle  of  Actium.  Such,  observes  Goldsmith, 
was  the  end  of  this  mighty  empire,  which  had  con- 
quered mankind  by  its  arms  and  instructed  the  world 
by  its  wisdom ; which  had  risen  by  temperance  and 
fell  by  luxfiry;  which  had  been  established  by  a spirit 
of  patriotism  and  sunk  to  ruin  when  the  empire  had 
become  so  extensive  that  a Roman  citizen  was  but 
an  empty  name.  Roman  glory  had  passed  away ; 
Roman  liberty  existed  only  in  the  remembrance  of  the 
past ; the  rude  warriors  of  Germany  and  Scythia  pos- 
sessed the  city  of  Romulus ; and  a barbarian  occupied 
the  palace  of  the  Caesars. 

THE  EASTERN  OR  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. 

The  stronger  allurements  which  the  western  empire 
offered  to  the  barbarians,  and  the  subsidies  paid  by 
the  emperors  of  the  east,  preserved  that  portion  in 
comparative  tranquillity.  Arcadius,  a weak  and  timid 
prince,  was,  at  his  death,  succeeded  by  his  son  Theo- 
dosius. He  was  a minor  at  the  time  of  his  accession, 
and,  during  his  whole  reign,  was  subject  to  the  influ- 
ence of  his  sister,  Pulcheria.  On  his  death  she  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  and  was  the  first  female  who 
swayed  the  scepter  of  the  Roman  empire.  She  was 
a princess  of  genius  and  virtue.  On  her  death  the 
Theodosian  family  became  extinct  in  the  east.  Mar- 
tian, her  husband,  continued  to  reign  with  a vigorous 


308 


Ancient  Empires. 


and  prudent  policy.  Despising  the  miserable  artifices 
by  which  former  emperors  had  purchased  immunity 
from  the  dreaded  arms  of  the  Huns,  he  stopped  the 
payment  of  the  subsidies.  The  Huns  menaced  re- 
venge ; but  the  death  of  Attila  occurring  at  this  period 
delivered  the  empire  from  the  danger  of  the  threatened 
invasion.  Leo,  the  successor  of  Marcian,  was  emperor 
at  the  period  of  the  destruction  of  the  western  empire. 
Zeno,  Anastasius  and  Justin,  successively  ascended  the 
throne,  but  left  behind  them  no  deed  which  should 
preserve  their  names  from  oblivion. 

Justinian  succeeded  Justin.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Vandals  in  Africa,  founded  by  Genseric,  had  become 
established.  Hilderic,  grandson  of  Genseric,  succeed- 
ed him.  He  was  deposed  by  Gelimer.  Justinian,  de- 
sirous to  recover  the  province,  affected  to  favor  Hil- 
deric and  sent  Belisarius  with  an  army  into  Africa. 
He  conquered  the  Vandals,  reduced  Carthage,  and  took 
Gelimer,  whom  he  carried  to  Constantinople,  to  grace 
his  triumph.  As  Hilderic  had  been  executed  the  race 
of  Genseric  became  extinct,  and  Africa  now  belonged 
to  the  eastern  empire.  Gelimer  was  seen  in  the  tri- 
umphal procession  o£  Belisarius,  arrayed  in  regal  robes, 
and  though  he  neither  sighed  or  wept,  he  was  heard  to 
murmur,  “Vanity!  vanity!  all  is  vanity!”  Gelisarius 
next  marched  to  Italy,  where  he  defeated  the  Ostro- 
goths, subdued  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  returned  to  Con- 
stantinople with  Vitiges,  the  Gothic  king,  in  chains. 

These  successes  awakened  the  jealousy  of  Chosroes, 
reigning  sovereign  of  Persia,  who  now  renewed  the 
war  which  had  been  suspended  by  a truce.  Belisar- 


The  Romans. 


309 


ius  was  sent  against  him  and  the  war  was  waged  with 
various  and  alternate  success  until  the  declining  years 
of  Justinian  and  Chosroes  cooled  their  military  ardor, 
and  procured  a further  truce  for  fifty  years.  Beli- 
sarius  was  next  sent  to  Italy  against  the  Goths,  who 
had  rebelled,  but  being  recalled  through  a jealousy 
which  had  arisen  in  the  mind  of  the  emperor,  Narses, 
another  lieutenant  of  Justinian  was  substituted  in  his 
place,  and  effected  their  complete  reduction.  After 
this  final  conquest  of  the  Gothic  kingdom  the  govern- 
ment of  Italy  was  administered  by  officers  styled  Ex- 
archs, who  held  their  court  at  Ravenna,  and  were  the 
representatives  of  the  eastern  emperor. 

The  Bulgarians,  aided  by  a multitude  of  barbarous 
Sclavonians,  now  crossed  the  Danube,  ravaged  Mace- 
donia and  Thrace,  and  extended  their  devastations 
within  a few  miles  of  Constantinople.  Belisarius  met 
and  defeated  them.  But  this  was  the  last  of  his  many 
victories;  and  he  who  had  so  gloriously  sustained  the 
military  fame  of  the  empire,  was  doomed  by  regal 
ingratitude  to  pass  his  old  age  in  penury  and  disgrace. 

While  the  arms  of  the  empire  had  acquired  glory 
abroad  the  declining  nation  was  still  in  distress.  Con- 
stantinople was  distracted  by  factions.  Earthquakes 
of  unusual  extent  and  duration  spread  desolation  in 
different  parts.  Antioch,  especially,  was  almost  wholly 
destroyed,  and  250,000  persons  were  supposed  to  have 
been  buried  in  its  ruins.  A most  dreadful  pestilence 
spread  its  ravages  through  the  empire,  and  for  a time 
its  virulence  seemed  undiminished  by  the  change  of 
seasons.  At  length  its  malignity  abated,  but  for  half 


310 


Ancient  Empires. 


a century  its  presence  was  in  some  degree  felt.  In 
Constantinople  during  three  months  5,000,  and  at  last 
10,000  persons  are  reported  to  have  died  daily.  Many 
cities  of  the  east  were  depopulated  and  during  the 
reign  of  Justinian  there  was  a visible  diminution  of 
the  human  species. 

Justinian  derives  his  chief  reputation  from  his  sys- 
tem of  Roman  jurisprudence.  With  the  assistance  of 
Tribonian,  an  eminent  lawyer,  he  digested  and  sim- 
plified the  mass  of  laws,  which  had  been  accumulating 
for  ages ; and  formed  those  bodies  of  law  called  The 
Justinian  Code,  the  Pandects,  and  the  Institutes.  This 
was  the  greatest  work  of  the  age,  and  forms  the  foun- 
dation of  the  present  civil  law. 

Justin  II.,  who  was  nephew  and  successor  to  Jus- 
tinian, was  unequal  to  the  weight  of  government  and 
associated  with  himself  Tiberius,  a man  of  surpass- 
ing merit,  the  captain  of  the  guards.  The  barbarian 
Lombards,  under  Alboin,  conquered  the  northern  part 
of  Italy,  and  established  a kingdom  to  which  they  gave 
the  name  of  Lombardy.  By  the  nomination  of  the 
worthy  Tiberius,  Maurice  succeeded  him.  A revolu- 
tion had  occurred  in  Persia.  Hormouz  had  succeeded 
his  father  Chosroes,  or  Nourshirvan  the  Just;  but  he 
was  of  an  opposite  character.  He  had  in  Bahram  a 
general  of  great  talents  and  ambition.  In  a fit  of 
hasty  displeasure  Hormouz  sent  a present  of  a woman’s 
dress,  a wheel  and  a distaff,  to  Bahram.  He  put  on 
the  dress,  and  with  his  presents  in  his  hands,  appeared 
before  the  army.  The  enraged  soldiers,  thus  insulted 
in  the  person  of  their  commander,  revolted,  and  de- 


The  Romans. 


811 


posed  the  foolish  monarch.  His  son  Chosroes  fled  to 
Constantinople.  Maurice  received  him  favorably,  and 
dispatched  an  army  to  Persia,  which  subverted  the 
power  of  Bahram  and  placed  him,  as  Chosroes  II.,  on 
the  throne  of  his  fathers. 

The  Avars,  an  Asiatic  race,  had  fled  from  the  victor- 
ious arms  of  the  Turks,  or  Turcomans.  By  union  with 
the  Lombards  they  had  destroyed  the  Gepidse.  After 
the  Lombards  carried  their  arms  and  nation  into  Italy, 
the  Avars  settled  in  Pannonia,  which  they  had  vacat- 
ed, and  extended  their  dominion  from  the  Euxine  to 
the  foot  of  the  Alps.  While  the  Persian  war  employed 
the  imperial  arms  in  the  east  the  Avars  threatened  the 
empire  from  the  north.  As  soon  as  the  military  force 
was  released  from  the  Persian  war  Maurice  hastened 
to  employ  it  against  these  barbarians.  His  generals 
were  ill  selected,  with  the  exception  of  Priscus,  who 
obtained  several  victories;  but  the  situation  of  the 
army  and  the  empire  rendered  even  his  victories  un- 
profitable. 

The  emperor  ordered  the  army  to  make  the  country 
of  the  Avars  their  winter  quarters.  Already  inclined 
to  mutiny,  they  now  burst  into  open  revolt,  declared 
Maurice  unworthy  of  the  crown  and  elevated  Phocas, 
an  ignorant  and  brutal  centurion.  The  rebel  army  then 
hastened  their  return  to  Constantinople.  Maurice  and 
his  family  had  fled  to  Chalcedon  whither  the  cruel 
emissaries  of  Phocas  followed.  They  compelled  the 
emperor  to  witness  the  successive  murder  of  his  five 
sons.  The  agonized  father  uttered  the  ejaculation, 
“Thou  art  just,  O Lord,  and  thy  judgments  are  right- 


312 


Ancient  Empires. 


eous.”  Even  amidst  this  dreadful  scene,  his  stern  ad- 
herence to  truth  prevailed  over  natural  affection. 
When  the  nurse  by  falsehood  sought  to  preserve  the 
life  of  his  infant,  Maurice  disclosed  her  design,  and 
surrendered  his  child. 

An  ignominious  peace  with  the  Avars  was  made 
by  Phocas,  who  found  himself  exposed  at  once  to  a 
revolt  of  the  province  of  Africa  and  to  the  arms  of 
Chosroes,  who  now  found,  in  the  death  of  his  bene- 
factor, Maurice,  a pretext  for  war.  He  wrested  from 
the  empire  many  of  its  eastern  fortresses  and  carried 
terror  into  Syria.  Heraclius,  son  of  the  exarch  of 
Africa,  who  had  never  acknowledged  the  authority  of 
Phocas,  advanced  at  the  head  of  the  African  forces 
and  by  a union  with  the  disaffected,  made  himself 
master  of  Constantinople  and  deposed  and  executed 
the  tyrant.  Chosroes  made  himself  successively  mas- 
ter of  Antioch,  Jerusalem  and  Alexandria;  and  while 
one  division  of  his  army  extended  his  conquests  to 
Tripoli,  another  marched  to  the  Bosphorus  and,  for 
ten  years,  lay  encamped  in  the  neighborhood  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  Avars  renewed  their  hostilities  and 
encamped  their  hosts  along  the  plains  of  Thrace. 
Thus,  on  every  side,  the  speedy  dissolution  of  the 
empire  was  threatened. 

In  this  extremity  the  funds  of  the  church  were  ap- 
propriated to  the  service  of  the  empire,  and  an  immense 
army  was  levied,  while  a large  subsidy  purchased, 
though  it  did  not  secure,  the  neutrality  of  the  Avars. 
Declining  to  engage  the  Persian  army,  which  lay  en- 
camped opposite  the  city,  Heraclius,  master  of  the 


The  Romans. 


313 


sea,  transported  his  forces  to  the  confines  of  Syria 
and  Cilicia  and  pitched  his  camp  near  Issus,  on  the 
ground  where  Alexander  had  vanquished  Darius.  Here, 
secure  from  attack,  he  organized  and  disciplined  his 
troops.  The  Persians  repaired  to  Cilicia,  and  Herac- 
lius  drew  them  into  an  engagement  and  defeated  them. 

In  the  next  campaign  Heraclius  passed  the  Black 
Sea  and  traversed  the  mountains  of  Armenia.  He 
penetrated  into  the  heart  of  Persia  to  compel  Chosroes 
to  recall  his  armies  for  the  defense  of  his  own  king- 
dom. The  Persian  king,  however,  still  maintained  his 
army  in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople,  to  second  the 
operations  of  the  treacherous  Chagan,  or  chief  of  the 
Avars,  who>,  regardless  of  the  subsidy  he  had  received 
as  the  price  of  his  neutrality,  had  entered  into  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Persians.  A host  of  Avars,  Gepidse, 
Russians,  Bulgarians,  and  Sclavonians,  now  besieged 
Constantinople,  but  were  repulsed ; while  the  Persians, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Bosphorus,  beheld  their 
discomfiture,  without  being  able  to  render  them  any 
assistance. 

Heraclius  had,  meantime,  strengthened  his  army  by 
an  alliance  with  the  Turks.  A memorable  battle  was 
f ought  at  Nineveh,  in  which  the  Roman  arms  tri- 
umphed. Chosroes  was  shortly  after  assassinated  by 
his  son  Siroes,  who  concluded  a peace  with  the 
Romans,  in  which  he  relinquished  the  conquests  of  his 
father ; and  Heraclius  withdrawing  his  forces  from 
the  kingdom,  returned  to  his  capital  in  triumph. 


THE  DARK  AGES. 


That  period  between  the  fall  of  the  western  empire 
and  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  usually  termed 
the  Dark  Ages,  since,  with  the  disappearance  of  the 
civilization  of  Rome,  the  world  seemed  to  have  relapsed 
into  barbarism.  But  the  thoughtful  student  will  not 
fail  to  perceive  that  this  period,  apparently  so  full  of 
darkness  and  hopelessness,  was  in  reality  a season  of 
growth,  in  which  the  civilization  of  Europe  was  be- 
ing shaped,  and  during  which  it  was  acquiring  strength 
for  the  part  it  was  to  play  in  the  great  drama  of 
modern  history.  In  tracing  this  development  through 
the  period  of  the  Dark  Ages,  we  shall  be  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  growth  and  expansion  of  the  great 
Teutonic  or  German  race,  which,  from  its  seat  in  cen- 
tral and  eastern  Europe,  began  immediately  upon  the 
downfall  of  the  western  empire  to  absorb  and  shape 
the  destiny  and  character  of  almost  the  entire  conti- 
nent. As  an  accomplished  writer  of  our  own  land 
well  says,  “The  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  the 
history  of  the  incorporation  of  Teutonic  or  Germanic 
barbarians  with  the  Latin  and  Celtic  elements;  mod- 
ern society  is  the  result  of  the  blending  of  the  two; 
and  it  derives  its  ingredients  from  both — from  the 
barbarians  the  love  of  personal  liberty  and  the  sense 
of  independence ; from  the  Romans  the  forms  of  a 
long  established  civilization.” 

It  will  be  interesting  and  useful  to  glance  at  the 


(314) 


The  Dark  Ages. 


315 


settlement  of  the  nations  of  Europe  at  the  time  when 
Odoacer  erected  his  throne  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  empire.  The  Germanic  race  was  already  pre- 
dominant in  Europe  and  the  Germanic  tribes  were  be- 
ginning to  press  the  Celtic  nations  into  narrower  quar- 
ters. The  people  of  Gaul  were  of  the  Celtic  stock, 
but  they  had  been  so  greatly  influenced  by  their  long 
connection  with  the  Romans  that  they  had  become  thor- 
oughly Latinized  and  Christianized  before  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  empire.  The  same  may  be  said  for  the  Celt- 
Iberians  of  Spain.  The  Celts  of  the  British  islands 
had  also  been  given  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens,  and 
had  been  greatly  affected  by  their  contact  with  the 
Romans.  The  German  influence  began  to  affect  these 
nations  about  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  and  with 
entire  success,  as  we  shall  see  in  other  portions  of  this 
work. 

The  principal  Germanic  tribes  were  the  Goths,  the 
Franks,  the  Vandals,  the  Burgundians,  the  Lombards, 
the  Saxons,  the  Angles,  and  the  Scandinavians. 

At  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  the  Visigothic 
kingdom  of  Euric  embraced  the  whole  of  Spain,  and 
all  of  Gaul  south  of  the  Loire  and  west  of  the  Rhone. 
The  capital  of  this  kingdom  was  Arles,  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  center  of  western  civilization.  It  was 
the  chosen  seat  of  learning  and  refinement  in  Eu- 
rope, and  its  monarch  was  the  most  powerful  and  en- 
lightened of  European  sovereigns.  The  northwestern 
part  of  Spain  was  held  by  the  Suevi,  who  were  tribu- 
tary to  Euric.  Under  the  descendants  of  Euric  the 
Visigoths  were  driven  south  of  the  Pyrenees  and  con- 


316 


Ancient  Empires. 


fined  to  the  Spanish  peninsula,  where  they  maintained 
themselves  until  their  kingdom  was  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens,  two  centuries  later.  The  Ostrogoths  held 
Italy  and  the  region  between  the  Danube  and  the 
Adriatic.  The  Gepidse,  another  division  of  the  Gothic 
family,  were  established  north  of  the  lower  Danube, 
and  between  the  upper  Danube  and  the  Carpathian 
mountains,  the  region  now  known  as  Moldavia,  Wal- 
lachia  and  eastern  Hungary.  The  Goths  were  the 
first  of  the  Teutonic  nations  to  come  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Christianity.  At  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the 
western  empire  they  had  generally  adopted  the  form  of 
Christianity  known  as  Arianism. 

The  Franks,  who  were  subsequently  to  become  mas- 
ters of  ancient  Gaul  and  to  give  their  name  to  the 
greater  part  of  it,  were  still  chiefly  beyond  its  limits, 
but  were  beginning  to  press  over  the  border.  We 
first  find  them  inhabiting  the  country  now  known  as 
Belgium  and  the  region  of  the  lower  Rhine.  About 
the  time  of  the  fall  of  the  empire  they  overran  Gaul 
and  drove  out  the  Visigoths  from  the  southwest,  and 
conquered  the  Burgundians.  To  their  new  home  the 
name  of  France  came  at  length  to  be  attached,  from 
Francia,  the  land  of  the  Franks. 

The  Vandals  had  spread  themselves  from  the  ex- 
treme south  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  to  the  northern 
shore  of  Africa,  where  they  had  established  their  king- 
dom, with  Carthage  as  their  capital.  They  possessed 
also  Corsica,  Sardinia  and  the  Balearic  Isles. 

The  Burgundians  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Rhone 
and  the  Swiss  lakes,  the  region  which  for  a thousand 


The  Dark  Ages. 


317 


years  bore  their  name  and  whose  ruler,  until  sub- 
dued, was  a powerful  rival  to  the  crown  of  France. 

The  Lombards,  or  Langobards,  were  at  this  period 
settled  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Gepidse,  be- 
tween the  Danube  and  the  head  waters  of  the  Vistula. 
Their  original  home  was  Jutland,  from  which  they 
moved  to  the  banks  of  the  Elbe.  Later  on  they  passed 
to  the  southeast  and  settled  in  the  region  just  named, 
from  which  they  were  afterwards  to  descend  upon 
Italy. 

The  Saxons  (or  knifemen,  a name  derived  from  the 
word  Sacho)  came  originally  from  the  province  now 
known  as  Holstein.  By  the  period  we  are  consider- 
ing they  l\ad  spread  over  the  basin  of  the  Weser, 
from  the  Rhine  on  the  south  to  the  Baltic.  Two  of 
the  principal  Saxon  tribes  occupied  the  peninsula  of 
Denmark.  They  were  the  Jutes  and  the  Angles.  The 
Saxons  had  never  met  the  Romans  and  were  conse- 
quently unaffected  by  Roman  influences.  They  were 
still  pagans.  Great  numbers  of  them  had  settled  along 
the  coasts  of  northern  Gaul,  and  their  piratical  craft 
carried  terror  along  the  entire  European  coast.  Pre- 
vious to  the  fall  of  the  western  empire  the  Angles, 
Saxons  and  Jutes  had  crossed  the  North  Sea  and  es- 
tablished themselves  in  the  southern  part  of  Britain, 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  England,  or  “land  of 
the  Angles.” 

The  Scandinavians  do  not  appear  on  the  scene  until 
the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  when  we  shall  encounter 
them  under  the  name  of  Norsemen. 

These  were  the  principal  divisions  of  the  great  Teu- 


318 


Ancient  Empires. 


tonic  family.  Beyond  the  Elbe,  dwelling  in  the  vast 
plains  of  eastern  Europe,  were  the  Slaves  or  Slavon- 
ians, one  of  the  grand  divisions  of  the  Aryan  stock 
in  Europe.  They  were  a pastoral  people,  superior  in 
numbers,  but  inferior  in  power,  to  the  Teutonic  race. 
They  were  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Poles,  Bohe- 
mians, Bulgarians,  Illyrians,  and,  to  a great  degree 
of  the  Rusians. 

The  Finnish  tribes  occupied  the  frozen  and  marshy 
regions  of  the  extreme  north.  The  eastern  or  Greek 
empire  covered  southeastern  Europe.  The  Celts  still 
inhabited  the  extreme  northwest  of  Gaul  with  the 
Bretons  that  had  been  expelled  by  the  Saxons.  Those 
British  colonies  gave  the  name  of  Brittany  to  that 
territory.  The  Celts  also  controlled  the  countries  now 
known  as  Wales,  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

The  Feudal  System  had  its  origin  among  the  bar- 
barous nations,  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  Lombards, 
and  others,  that  overran  the  countries  of  Europe,  on 
the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire;  but  it  is  supposed 
to  have  received  its  earliest  improvement  among  the 
Lombards.  It  was  adopted  by  Charlemagne,  and 
eventually  by  most  of  the  princes  of  Europe ; and  it 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been  first  introduced  into 
England  by  William  the  Conqueror. 

When  the  northern  barbarians  had  made  a conquest 
of  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  the  conquered 
lands  were  distributed  by  lot ; hence  they  were  called 
allotted  or  allodial;  and  they. were  held  in  entire  sov- 


319 


- 


The  Dark  Ages. 

ereignty  by  the  different  chieftains,  without  any  other 
obligation  existing  between  them  than  that  of  uniting 
in  case  of  war  for  the  common  defense.  The  king  or 
captain-general,  who  led  on  his  respective  tribes  to 
conquest,  naturally  received  by  far  the  largest  portion 
of  territory  for  his  bwn  share;  and  his  principal  fol- 
lowers, to  whom  he  granted  lands,  bound  themselves 
merely  to  render  him  military  services. 

The  example  of  the  king  was  imitated  by  his  cour- 
tiers, who  distributed,  under  similar  conditions,  por- 
tions of  their  estates  to  their  dependents.  Thus  a 
feudal  kingdom  became  a military  establishment  and 
had  the  appearance  of  a victorious  army  encamped  un-. 
der  its  officers  in  different  parts  of  a country;  every 
captain  or  baron  considering  himself  independent  of 
his  sovereign,  except  during  a period  of  national  war. 

Possessed  of  wide  tracts  of  country  and  residing  at 
a distance  from  the  capital  these  barons  or  lords  erected 
strong  and  gloomy  castles  or  fortresses  in  places  of 
difficult  access ; and  not  only  oppressed  the  people  and 
slighted  the  civil  magistracy  of  the  state,  but  were 
often  in  a condition  to  set  the  authority  of  the  crown 
itself  at  defiance. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  this  system  was  that 
all  the  lands  were  originally  granted  out  by  the  sov- 
ereign and  were  held  of  the  crown.  The  grantor  was 
called  lord,  and  they  to  whom  he  made  grants,  were 
styled  his  feudatories  or  vassals.  As  military  service 
was  the  only  burden  to  which  the  feudatories  were  sub- 
jected, this  service  was  esteemed  honorable  and  the 
names  of  freeman  and  soldier  were  synonymous. 


320 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  feudal  government,  though  well  calculated  for 
defense,  was  nevertheless  very  defective  in  its  pro- 
visions for  the  internal  order  of  society.  The  great 
barons  or  lords  possessed  extensive  tracts  of  country, 
erected  on  them,  fortified  castles  in  places  difficult  of 
access,  oppressed  the  people,  slighted  the  civil  au- 
thorities, and  frequently  set  their  sovereigns  at  defi- 
ance. _ * 

A kingdom  resembled  a number  of  confederate  states 
under  one  common  head ; the  barons  or  lords  acknowl- 
edging a species  of"  allegiance  to  their  sovereign,  yet 
when  obedience  was  refused  it  could  only  be  enforced 
by  an  appeal  to  arms.  But  the  great  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple who  cultivated  the  land  were  called  serfs  or  vil- 
lains, and  lived  in  the  most  servile  condition.  They 
were  not  permitted  to  bear  arms,  nor  suffered  to  leave 
the  estates  of  their  lords.  As  each  of  the  feudal  lords 
was  independent  within  the  limits  of  his  own  imme- 
diate possessions,  and  as  the  thread  of  unity  existing 
between  them  was  at  all  times  feeble,  it  was  natural 
to  suppose  that  frequent  disputes  and  sanguinary  con- 
tests were  the  consequence.  Such  in  reality  was  the 
case ; hence  we  find  that  Europe,  during  the  existence 
of  the  Feudal  System  exhibited  an  almost  uninter- 
rupted scene  of  anarchy,  turbulence,  and  destructive 
warfare. 

Some  of  the  causes  assigned  for  the  gradual  decline 
of  the  Feudal  System  were  the  Crusades,  the  extension 
of  commerce,  the  increase  and  distribution  of  wealth 
and  knowledge,  and  lastly,  the  change  of  warfare  which 
followed  the  invention  of  gunpowder. 


CHIVALRY. 


In  the  midst  of  confusion  and  crime,  while  property 
was  held  by  the  sword  and  cruelty  and  injustice  reigned 
supreme,  the  spirit  of  chivalry  arose  to  turn  back  the 
tide  of  oppression,  and  to  plant,  in  the  very  midst  of 
barbarism,  the  seeds  of  the  most  noble  and  the  most 
generous  principles.  The  precise  time  at  which  chi- 
valry was  recognized  as  a military  institution,  with 
outward  forms  and  ceremonials,  cannot  now  be  ascer- 
tained ; but  the  first  notices  we  have  of  it  trace  it  to 
that  age  when  the  disorders  in  the  feudal  system  had 
attained  their  utmost  point  of  excess,  toward  the  close 
of  the  tenth  century.  It  was  then  that  some  noble 
barons,  filled  with  charitable  zeal  and  religious  enthu- 
siasm, and  moved  with  compassion  for  the  wretched- 
ness which  they  saw  around  them,  combined  together, 
under  the  solemnity  of  religious  sanctions,  with  the 
holy  purpose  of  protecting  the  weak  from  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  powerful,  and  of  defending  the  right  cause 
against  the  wrong. 

The  spirit  and  the  institution  of  chivalry  spread 
rapidly ; treachery  and  hypocrisy  became  detestable ; 
while  courtesy,  magnanimity,  courage,  and  hospitality, 
became  the  virtues  of  the  age ; and  the  knights,  who 
were  ever  ready  to  draw  their  swords,  at  whatever 
odds,  in  defense  of  innocence,  received  the  adoration 
of  the  populace,  and,  in  public  opinion,  were  exalted 
even  above  kings  themselves.  The  meed  of  praise  and 
esteem  gave  fresh  vigor  and  purity  to  the  cause  of 
chivalry ; and  under  the  influence  of  its  spirit  great 
deeds  were  done  by  the  fraternity  of  valiant  knights 


322 


Ancient  Empires. 


who  had  enrolled  themselves  as  its  champions.  “The 
baron  forsook  his  castle,  and  the  peasant  his  hut,  to 
maintain  the  honor  of  a family,  or  preserve  the  sacred- 
ness of  a vow ; it  was  this  sentiment  which  made  the 
poor  serf  patient  in  his  toils  and  serene  in  his  sor- 
rows ; it  enabled  his  master  to  brave  all  physical  evils, 
and  enjoy  a sort  of  spiritual  romance;  it  bound- the 
peasant  to  his  master  and  the  master  to  his  king; 
and  it  was  the  principle  of  chivalry,  above  all  others, 
that  was  needed  to  counteract  the  miseries  of  an  infant 
state  of  civilization/’ 

Though  in  the  practical  exemplifications  of  chivalry 
there  was  often  much  of  error,  yet  its  spirit  was  based 
upon  the  most  generous  impulses  of  human  nature. 
“To  speak  the  truth,  to  succor  the  helpless  and  op- 
pressed and  never  to  turn  back  from  an  enemy,”  was 
the  first  vow  of  the  aspirant  to  the  honors  of  chivalry. 
In  an  age  of  darkness  and  degradation,  chivalry  de- 
veloped the  character  of  woman,  and,  causing  her  vir- 
tues to  be  appreciated  and  honored,  made  her  the  equal 
companion  of  man,  and  the  object  of  his  devotion. 
“The  love  of  God  and  the  ladies,”  says  Hallam,  “was 
enjoined  as  a single  duty.  He  who  was  faithful  and 
true  to  his  mistress  was  held  sure  of  salvation  in  the 
theology  of  castles,  though  not  of  cloisters.”  In  the 
language  of  another  modern  writer,  “chivalry  gave 
purity  to  enthusiasm,  crushed  barbarous  selfishness, 
taught  the  heart  to  expand  like  a flower  to  the  sun- 
shine, beautified  glory  with  generosity,  and  smoothed 
even  the  rugged  brow  of  war.”  A description  of  the 
various  customs  and  peculiarities  of  chivalry,  as  they 


The  Dark  Ages.  . 


323 


grew  up  by  degrees  into  a regular  institution,  would 
be  requisite  to  a full  development  of  the  character  of 
the  age,  but  we  can  only  glance  at  these  topics  here. 
As  chivalry  was  a military  institution,  its  members  were 
taken  wholly  from  the  military  class,  which  comprised 
none  but  the  descendants  of  the  northern  conquerors 
of  the  soil ; for,  with  few  exceptions,  the  original  in- 
habitants of  the  western  Roman  empire  had  been  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  serfs,  or  vassals,  of  their 
barbarian  lords. 

The  initiation  of  the  German  youth  to  the  profession 
of  arms  had  been,  from  the  earliest  ages,  an  occasion 
of  solemnity;  and  when  the  spirit  of  chivalry  had  es- 
tablished the  order  of  kniglithood,  as  the  concentration 
of  all  that  was  noble  and  valiant  in  a warlike  age, 
it  became  the  highest  object  of  every  young  man’s 
ambition  one  day  to  be  a knight.  A long  and  tedious 
education,  consisting  of  instruction  in  all  manly  and 
military  exercises,  and  in  the  first  principles  of  religion, 
honor  and  courtesy,  was  requisite  as  a preparation  for 
this  honor.  Next,  the  candidate  for  knighthood,  after 
undergoing  his  preparatory  fasts  and  vigils,  passed 
through  the  ceremonies  which  made  him  a knight. 
Armed  and  caparisoned  he  then  sallied  forth  in  quest 
of  adventure,  displayed  his  powers  at  tournaments,  and 
often  visited  foreign  countries,  both  for  the  purpose  of 
jousting  with  other  knights,  and  for  instruction  in 
every  sort  of  chivalrous  knowledge.  It  cannot  be  de- 
nied, however,  that  the  practice  of  knight-errantry,  or 
that  of  wandering  about  armed,  as  the  avowed  cham- 
pions of  the  right  cause  against  the  wrong,  gave 


324 


Ancient  Empires. 


to  the  evil-minded  a very  convenient  cloak  for  the 
basest  purposes,  and  that  every  adventure,  whether  just 
or  not  in  its  purpose,  was  too  liable  to  be  esteemed  hon- 
orable in  proportion  as  it  was  perilous.  But  these 
were  abuses  of  chivalry,  and  perversions  of  its  early 
spirit. 

During  the  eleventh  century  we  find  that  chivalry, 
although  probably  first  appearing  in  Gaul,  had  spread 
to  all  the  surrounding  nations.  In  Spain  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Christians  and  the  Moors  exhibited  a chiv- 
alric  spirit  unknown  to  former  times.  About  this 
period  the  institution  of  knighthood  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  among  the  Saxons  of  England ; and 
it  was  first  made  known  to  the  Italians,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century,  by  a band  of  knights  from 
Normandy,  whose  religious  zeal  prompted  them,  as 
they  were  returning  from  a pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land,  to  undertake  the  relief  of  a small  town  besieged 
by  the  Saracens.  As  the  feudal  system  spread  over 
Europe  its  evils  were  largely  counteracted  by  the  insti- 
tution of  chivalry.  Combined  with  religious  enthusi- 
asm, it  led  to  the  Crusades. 

THE  CRUSADES. 

So  long  as  the  caliphs,  either  of  Bagdad  .or  Cairo, 
governed  Syria,  their  enlightened  policy  protected  and 
encouraged  European  travelers.  A quarter  of  Jeru- 
salem was  assigned  for  their  use,  and  the  keys  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher  were  in  their  hands ; while  in  return 
the  country  was  enriched  by  the  money  which  they 
freely  spent  for  relics  and  mementoes  of  the  holy  places. 


S25 


The  Dark  Ages. 

Syria,  as  the  natural  center  of  Mediterranean  com- 
merce, attracted  multitudes  of  merchants,  among  whom 
the  Greek  inhabitants  of  Amalfi  were  most  numerous 
and  enterprising.  Their  ships  conveyed  western  pil- 
grims to  the  ports  of  Palestine,  and  their  liberality 
endowed  the  church  and  hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem for  their  entertainment. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century  the 
number  of  pilgrims  was  greatly  multiplied,  in  spite  of 
the  increased  peril,  or  rather,  perhaps,  in  consequence 
of  it.  Seven  thousand  devotees,  led  by  the  primate  of 
Germany  and  several  of  his  bishops,  braved  the  hostility 
of  the  Turks  and  visited  Jerusalem,  but  they  were  glad 
to  return  by  means  of  a Genoese  fleet.  Hildebrand 
himself  prepared  to  lead  fifty  thousand  volunteers  to 
the  rescue  of  Christian  residents  in  the  east  from  the 
hand  of  the  infidel. 

But  it  was  reserved  for  Peter,  a hermit  of  Picardy, 
effectually  to  kindle  that  flame  of  martial  and  religious 
zeal  which  was  to  burn  two  centuries  in  Europe.  He 
returned  from  his  pilgrimage,  bearing  letters  from  the 
patriarch  Symeon,  of  Jerusalem,  to  Pope  Urban  II 
and  the  whole  multitude  of  Latin  Christians,  beseech- 
ing their  aid.  The  Pope  took  counsel  with  Boemond, 
prince  of  Taranto,  the  son  of  Robert  Guiscard.  The 
Norman  had  inherited  all  his  father’s  ambition ; in  the 
fanatical  scheme  of  the  hermit  he  saw  his  own  chance 
of  recovering  the  provinces  of  Illyria,  Macedonia  and 
Greece,  which,  in  his  father’s  lifetime,  he  had  wrested 
from  the  Eastern  empire— as  well  as  a victory  for  the 
pontiff  over  his  rival,  Guibert,  who  had  been  appointed 


326 


Ancient  Empires. 


by  Henry  IV,  and  for  his  comrades  and  followers  un- 
limited wealth  and  dominion  in  the  spoils  of  the 
Saracens  and  Turks. 

Peter  preached  the  holy  war  throughout  Italy  and 
France,  in  streets,  highways  and  churches ; in  the  palace 
and  the  cottage ; and  was  everywhere  received  with  a 
rapture  of  enthusiasm.  The  Pope  himself  set  forth  the 
claims  of  the  East  in  the  two  councils  of  Piacenza  and 
Clermont,  where  legates  from  the  emperor,  Alexis,  also 
described  the  ravages  of  the  infidel  and  appealed  to  the 
chivalry  of  Europe  for  the  defense  of  the  only  bulwark 
of  Christianity  in  Asia.  The  crowd  at  Clermont  re- 
sponded with  tears,  groans,  and  the  shout,  “Dieu  le 
veut”  (God  wills  it),  which  became  the  battle  cry  of  the 
Crusades.  Thousands  of  every  rank  and  age  placed  the 
red  cross  upon  their  shoulders,  and  declared  their  pur- 
pose to  die,  if  need  were,  in  the  Holy  Land.  Even  the 
mountains  of  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Norway  heard  the 
summons  and  sent  forth  their  swarms  of  Christian 
soldiery.  Europe  forgot  her  private  feuds ; nobles  sold 
or  mortgaged  their  lands  and  castles;  artisans  and 
peasants,  their  tools  and  implements  of  husbandry; 
monks  exchanged  the  cowled  robe  for  armor  of  steel ; 
serfs  and  debtors  were  released  from  bondage  by  their 
assumption  of  the  cross ; even  robbers,  pirates,  and 
murderers  renounced  their  lawless  life,  and  believed 
that  they  could  wash  away  its  guilt  in  the  blood  of 
infidels. 

Unhappily,  the  first  act  of  the  Crusaders  was  a perse- 
cution and  massacre  of  the  Jews  in  the  cities  on  the 
Rhine.  In  that  dark  age  hatred  of  unbelievers  was 


The  Dark  Ages. 


3-27 


deemed  an  essential  feature  of  the  Christian  disposition, 
and  the  worst  barbarities  were  committed  against  the 
Hebrews  during  the  two  centuries  of  the  Holy  Wars. 
The  emperor,  Henry  IV,  perhaps  enlightened  by  his 
own  experience  of  persecution,  took  these  unhappy 
people  under  his  protection,  and  ordered  a strict  resti- 
tution of  their  property. 

Historians  of  the  time  assert  that  six  millions  of 
men,  women,  and  children  assumed  the  cross.  The 
time  of  departure  was  fixed  at  August  15,  1096;  but 
the  ignorant  and  unwarlike  rabble,  who  had  deserted 
their  industries  without  foresight  of  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence, did  not  await  the  appointed  day.  Above  60,000 
peasantry  from  the  borders  of  France  and  Lorraine  set 
forward  under  the  guidance  of  Walter  the  Penniless,  a 
brave  though  needy  soldier ; Peter  followed  with  40,000 
more ; and  an  irregular  host  of  200,000  without  officers, 
guides,  or  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  way,  pressed 
upon  their  heels.  Failing  of  the  miraculous  supplies  of 
food  which  they  expected,  they  attempted  to  live  at 
the  expense  of  the  countries  through  which  they  passed, 
and  multitudes  were  put  to  death  by  the  enraged  inhab- 
itants. 

When  the  regular  army  of  Crusaders  arrived,  a few 
months  later,  on  the  borders  of  Hungary,  they  found 
heaps  of  unburied  corpses ; to  their  inquiries  the  king 
replied  that  the  followers  of  Walter  and  Peter  were 
certainly  not  disciples  of  Christ,  and  that  their  crimes 
of  rapine  and  murder  had  only  been  justly  avenged. 
The  remnant  who  survived  were  kindly  received  by  the 
emperor  Alexis;  but  the  ruined  gardens,  palaces,  and 


328 


Ancient  Empires. 


even  churches  of  Constantinople  soon  testified  the  bar- 
barous ingratitude  of  his  guests.  Passing  over  into 
Asia,  they  were  easily  vanquished  by  Kilidge  Arslan  on 
the  plains  of  Nice,  and  a pyramid  of  their  bones  was 
almost  the  sole  remnant  of  this  advanced  guard  of  the 
crusading  hosts. 

Very  different  was  the  brave  and  brilliant  array 
which,  in  four  columns,  for  the  sake  of  more  abundant 
forage,  set  out  in  the  autumn  of  1096.  The  chivalry 
of  Lorraine  and  northeastern  France  were  led  through 
Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria  by  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon, duke  of  Lower  Lorraine  and  one  of  the  noblest 
knights  in  Christendom.  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse 
and  the  greatest  seigneur  of  southern  France,  led  his 
host  through  Lombardy  to  Aquileia,  and  thence 
through  Dalmatia  and  Slavonia.  Prince  Boemond  of 
Taranto  had  a sufficient  fleet  to  transport  his  army 
across  the  Adriatic.  The  remaining  division  was  led 
by  four  royal  princes — Hugh  of  Vermandois,  brother  of 
the  King  of  France;  Robert  of  Normandy,  eldest  son 
of  the  King  of  England ; another  Robert,  Count  of 
Flanders,  and  Stephen  of  Chartres  and  Blois,  who  had 
as  many  castles  as  there  are  days  in  the  year.  They 
traveled  the  length  of  Italy  amid  the  applause  of  the 
people,  and  were  entrusted  by  Pope  Urban  II  with 
the  golden  standard  of  St.  Peter ; but  their  army  became 
scattered  in  the  easy  and  triumphant  march,  and  the 
four  princes  crossed  the  Adriatic  in  a less  dignified 
array  than  that  in  which  they  had  set  out. 

The  emperor,  Alexis,  was  overwhelmed  by  the  num- 
bers, and  not  a little  incensed  by  the  conduct  of  his 


The  Dark  Ages. 


329 


allies.  All  his  ingenuity  was  taxed  to  prevent  a meeting 
of  any  two  of  their  armies  before  the  walls  of  his  capi- 
tal, and  to  expedite  their  departure  for  the  Holy  City. 
Their  first  operation  was  the  siege  of  Nice,  the  Turkish 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Roum,  which  was  taken,  June 
20,  1097,  and  restored  to  the  empire.  The  Turks  were 
also  defeated  near  Dorylaeum  in  a hard-fought  battle. 
Tancred,  a kinsman  of  Boemond,  and  Baldwin,  brother 
of  Godfrey,  were  then  sent  forward  with  their  horse- 
men. The  former  captured  Tarsus.  Baldwin,  coming 
up  after  it  was  taken,  desired  to  plunder  the  town  in 
violation  of  its  terms  of  surrender.  His  quarrel  with 
the  just  and  noble  Tancred  brought  upon  him  the  dis- 
pleasure of  all  the  crusaders,  and,  separating  his  own 
followers  from  the  main  army,  he  invaded  Mesopota- 
mia on  his  own  account. 

Edessa  was  then  governed  by  a Grecian  duke,  who 
paid  a heavy  tribute  to  the  Turks.  Being  childless,  he 
adopted  Baldwin,  who  as  prince  of  Edessa  threw  off 
the  Turkish  yoke,  made  conquests  among  the  hills  of 
Armenia  and  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  thus 
founded  the  first  Latin  sovereignty  in  Asia.  That  of 
Antioch  was  soon  afterward  gained  by  Boemond,  prince 
of  Taranto.  The  city  withstood  a seven  months’  siege ; 
and  even  when  it  was  taken  through  the  treachery  of 
a Syrian  renegade,  the  citadel  held  out,  and  a great 
reinforcement  of  Turks  from  Mosul  reduced  the  Chris- 
tian army,  now  exhausted  by  famine,  to  the  verge  of 
destruction.  The  timely  discovery  of  a sacred  lance, 
said  to  have  been  pointed  out  by  a vision  of  St.  Andrew, 
animated  the  crusaders  to  new  and  indomitable  zeal ; 


330 


Ancient  Empires. 


a fresh  attack  was  made  in  twelve  divisions  in  honor  of 
the  twelve  apostles,  and  the  Turkish  host  was  anni- 
hilated or  scattered.  The  emperor  Alexis  rejoiced 
equally  in  the  conquest  of  the  Turks  and  the  exhaustion 
of  the  Christians.  A violent  plague,  aggravated  by  the 
summer  heat,  destroyed  more  than  100,000  of  the 
crusading  army. 

The  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Egypt  had  exulted  in  the 
victories  of  the  Christians  over  their  own  enemies,  the 
Turks,  and  had  availed  themselves  of  the  abasement  of 
the  Seljukian  power  to  repossess  Jerusalem  and  all  Pal- 
estine. Friendly  letters  and  embassies  were  sent  from 
Cairo  to  the  Latin  camp;  but  the  leaders  refused  to 
make  any  distinction  between  the  ferocious  Turk  and 
the  courtly  Saracen.  They  declared  that  the  usurper  of 
Jerusalem  was  their  foe,  whoever  he  might  be ; and 
early  in  the  summer  of  1099  the  crusading  host  ap- 
peared before  the  Holy  City.  After  three  years’  pil- 
grimage the  first  glimpse  of  Jerusalem  was  hailed  with 
weeping  and  cries  of  joy.  Their  toils  and  sufiferings 
were  forgotten.  Casting  themselves  on  the  ground, 
the  pilgrims  gave  thanks  to  Heaven,  and  “all  had  much 
ado  to  manage  so  great  a gladness.”  The  millions  who 
had  taken  the  vows  were  now  reduced  to  40,000  men ; 
more  than  850,000  had  fellen  by  the  way;  of  their 
princely  leaders  two  had  returned  to  Europe  and  two 
were  settled  in  their  new  principalities  of  Edessa  and 
Antioch ; but  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Raymond  of  Tou- 
louse, Robert  of  Normandy,  and  Robert  of  Flanders 
pitched  their  respective  camps  on  the  northern  and 
western  sides  of  the  city, 


The  Dark  Ages. 


331 


Wood  for  the  assaulting  engines  was  brought  thirty 
miles  from  the  forests  of  Sichem.  The  siege  lasted 
forty  days,  during  which  the  crusaders  suffered  in- 
tensely from  want  of  water.  The  beds  of  the  Gihon 
and  Kedron  were  dry,  and  all  cisterns  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  Turks.  The  Saracens  had  now  learned 
the  use  of  Greek  fire,  and  in  the  final  attack  for  a day 
and  a half  victory  seemed  inclining  toward  the  besieged. 
At  length,  however,  on  Friday,  July  15,  the  victorious 
standard  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  planted  upon  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem,  460  years  from  its  conquest  by  the 
Saracens.  In  the  moment  of  victory  the  ferocious  pas- 
sions had  sway — babes  were  torn  from  their  mothers’ 
arms  to  be  dashed  against  the  walls,  and  ten  thousand 
Mohammedans  were  massacred  in  the  Mosque  of 
Omar.  Then  the  soldiers  of  Christ  remembered  that 
they  were  pilgrims,  and,  washing  themselves  of  the 
blood  they  had  so  pitilessly  shed,  they  walked  in  peni- 
tential procession  to  Mount  Calvary,  to  weep  and  pray 
at  the  tomb  of  their  Redeemer. 

Eight  days  after  this  great  event  the  army,  by  a 
unanimous  vote,  chose  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  to  be  king 
of  Jerusalem  and  protector  of  Christian  interests  in  the 
Holy  Land.  The  office  bore  with  it  more  of  peril  than 
of  profit,  and  the  great  duke  accepted  it  in  all  humility 
and  faithfulness.  He  refused  to  wear  a crown  of  gold 
in  the  city  where  his  Savior  had  worn  a crown  of 
thorns,  but  he  consented  to  be  styled  Guardian  of  Jeru- 
salem and  Baron  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  A code  of 
laws,  called  the  Assise  of  Jerusalem,  was  prepared  by 
the  most  competent  of  the  Latin  pilgrims  and  deposited 


332 


Ancient  Empires. 


in  the  tomb  on  Mount  Calvary.  A few  weeks  after  the 
capture  of  the  Holy  City,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  ap- 
proached with  an  army  to  retake  it.  He  was  decisively 
overthrown  at  Ascalon,  and  his  sword  and  standard 
were  hung  as  trophies  before  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 

The  greater  number  of  the  crusaders,  considering 
their  vows  accomplished,  then  returned  to  Europe,  leav- 
ing Godfrey  and  Tancred  with  three  hundred  knights 
and  two  thousand  foot  soldiers  to  defend  Palestine. 
The  kingdom  then  consisted  of  only  Jerusalem  and 
Jaffa,  with  about  twenty  villages  and  towns  lying  in 
that  region,  but  separated  by  fortresses  of  the  Moham- 
medans. Godfrey  survived  his  consecration  but  one 
year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Baldwin.  By 
successive  conquests  the  Latin  kingdom  was  extended 
east  of  the  Euphrates  and  southward  to  the  borders  of 
Egypt.  French  law,  language,  titles,  and  customs 
reigned  throughout  the  lands  once  governed  by  David 
and  Solomon.  Only  four  cities — Ems,  Hamath,  Dam- 
ascus, and  Aleppo — remained  to  the  Mohammendans 
of  all  their  Syrian  conquests.  The  lands  were  parceled 
out,  according  to  feudal  custom,  into  the  four  great 
baronies  of  (i)  Tripoli,  (2)  Galilee,  (3)  Caesarea  and 
Nazareth,  (4)  Jaffa  and  Ascalon. 

The  monks  of  the  order  of  St.  John  rendered  invalu- 
able services  to  the  crusading  armies  ; and  in  A.  D.  1121 
they  added  military  vows  to  those  of  the  cloister,  form- 
ing the  first  of  three  orders  of  chivalry  which  became 
the  valient  defenders  of  the  Holy  Land.  Nobles  and 
princes  fastened  to  enroll  themselves  as  “Knights  Hos- 
pitallers,” and  youths  were  sent  from  all  countries  to  be 


The  Dark  Ages. 


333 


trained  in  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  to  the  practice  of 
religion  and  knightly  virtues ; twenty-eight  thousand 
farms  and  manors  were  bestowed  upon  them  in  various 
countries  in  Christendom,  and  they  were  able  to  support 
a large  army  of  horse  and  foot  from  their  own  revenues. 
The  Templars  had  their  origin  about  the  same  time  in 
the  voluntary  association  of  nine  French  knights,  who 
added  to  the  usual  vows  of  the  religious  orders  a fourth, 
binding  them  to  the  protection  of  pilgrims  and  the 
defense  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  Originally  poor,  the 
Templars,  like  the  Hospitallers,  soon  became  distin- 
guished by  their  wealth,  numbers,  and  pride.  Their 
grand  master  had  the  dignity  of  a sovereign  prince, 
and,  as  the  order  owned  allegiance  to  none  but  the 
Pope,  it  became  an  object  of  jealousy  to  the  kings  in 
whose  realms  it  had  possessions.  The  Teutonic  Order 
was  of  somewhat  later  date. 

When  the  glorious  news  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
arrived  in  Europe,  Hugh  of  Vermandois  and  Stephen 
of  Chartres  were  filled  with  shame  and  regret  at  having 
so  soon  deserted  their  comrades.  They  hastened  to 
retrieve  their  reputation  by  placing  themselves  at  the 
head  of  a fresh  swarm  of  French,  German,  and  Lom- 
bard pilgrims  who  had  now  assumed  the  cross;  four 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  persons  set  forth  in 
A.  D.  iioi,  but  nearly  all  perished  in  Asia  Minor  from 
plague,  famine,  and  the  arrows  of  the  Turks. 

SECOND,  THIRD,  AND  FOURTH  CRUSADES. 

Several  causes  in  Europe  and  Asia  combined  to  bring 
about  a Second  Crusade.  The  county  of  Edessa  was 


334 


Ancient  Empires. 


conquered  by  Zenghi,  a Turkish  chief,  and  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Palestine  thus  lay  open  to  invasion.  Louis 
VII  of  France,  in  war  with  his  vassal,  the  Count  of 
Champagne,  violated  his  own  conscience  and  the  super- 
stition of  his  subjects  by  ordering  the  burning  of  a 
church  in  which  many  hundreds  of  the  surrendered 
people  had  taken  refuge.  Warned  by  illness,  he  re- 
solved to  expiate  the  crime  by  a pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
salem, in  which  he  was  joined  by  his  queen,  the  cele- 
brated Eleanor,  heiress  of  Aquitaine.  The  marvelous 
eloquence  of  Bernard,  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Vezelay,  stirred  all  ranks  and  classes  to  redeem 
the  Holy  Land  from  falling  again  into  the  possession 
of  infidels.  The  emperor,  Conrad  III,  yielded  to  the 
persuasions  of  the  abbot,  and  his  barons  and  people, 
who  had  taken  little  part  in  the  First  Crusade,  followed 
in  great  multitudes.  Towns  were  deserted,  and  only 
women  and  children  were  left,  in  many  instances,  to 
cultivate  the  land. 

The  emperor,  Manuel  Comnenus,  received  his  allies 
with  the  same  plausible  but  deceitful  policy  which  had 
distinguished  his  grandfather,  Alexis.  Bread  sold  to 
the  hungry  armies  was  mixed  with  chalk ; the  guides, 
either  by  secret  order  from  the  emperor  or  through  the 
bribes  of  the  Turks,  betrayed  the  crusaders  to  their 
enemies,  or  led  them  into  the  deserts  to  perish  with 
hunger  and  thirst.  The  French  king,  meanwhile,  was 
kept  inactive  by  the  false  assurances  of  Manuel.  When 
the  truth  became  known,  Conrad  and  Louis  joined  their 
forces  for  the  march  through  Asia  Minor.  In  a battle 
on  the  Mseander,  the  French  were  completely  vie- 


The  Dark  Ages. 


835 


torious ; but  in  a narrow  mountain  pass  between 
Phrygia  and  Pisidia  they  were  surprised  and  over- 
whelmed by  the  Mussulmans.  With  great  difficulty, 
owing  to  the  wintry  snows,  want  of  food,  and  the 
refusal  of  the  Greeks  to  trade,  the  Franks  arrived  at 
Attalia,  where  the  King  of  France  embarked  for  Anti- 
och, leaving  the  Count  of  Flanders  to  convoy  the  mass 
of  pilgrims  for  whom  no  ships  could  be  procured. 
Thousands  were  slaughtered  by  the  Turks,  and  the 
count,  seeing  the  case  hopeless,  escaped  by  sea,  leaving 
his  defenseless  comrades  to  their  fate. 

The  army  which  had  set  out  from  the  Rhine  and 
Danube  exceeded  in  numbers  that  of  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon, but  its  leaders  arrived  at  Antioch  with  only  a shat- 
tered remnant  of  their  forces.  Their  first  enterprise 
was  against  Damascus,  whose  power  and  position 
threatened  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  The  French, 
the  Germans,  and  the  two  orders  of  knights  vied  with 
each  other  in  deeds  of  unexampled  bravery.  The  prize 
was  within  their  grasp ; but  in  disputes  between  the 
Count  of  Flanders  and  the  barons  of  the  Holy  Land 
the  golden  moment  slipped  away.  The  Saracens  re- 
paired their  fortifications,  and  the  crusaders,  in  sorrow 
and  shame,  retreated  to  Jerusalem.  The  emperor  soon 
returned  to  Europe,  and  the  French  sovereigns,  with 
all  their  knights  and  gentlemen,  followed  in  a year. 
Thus  ended  the  Second  Crusade. 

The  Fatimite  caliph  of  Cairo  was  dethroned,  A.  D. 
1171,  by  a lieutenant  of  Noureddin,  Sultan  of  Damas- 
cus, who  was  subject  to  the  Abbassid  caliph  of  Bagdad. 
Saladin,  the  most  formidable  foe  of  Christendom,  was 


336 


Ancient  Empires. 


about  to  throw  off  his  allegiance  to  Noureddin,  when 
the  latter  died,  and  the  aspiring  young  vizier  made 
himself  Sultan  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  The  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  which  had  owed  its  eighty-eight  years’  ex- 
istence to  the  mutual  enmity  of  the  Saracens  and 
Turks,  was  the  first  to  feel  his  power.  In  a two  days’ 
battle  on  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  the  Christians  were 
routed,  and  their  king,  Guy  of  Lusignan,  with  the 
grand  master  of  the  Templars,  the  Marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat,  and  others,  were  prisoners.  Life  was  offered 
to  the  knights  of  the  two  orders  only  on  condition  of 
renouncing  their  faith,  and  two  hundred  and  thirty  met 
a voluntary  martyrdom.  In  consequence  of  the  battle 
Tiberias,  Acre,  Jaffa,  Caesarea,  and  many  other  towns 
fell  into  Saladin’s  possession.  Tyre  held  out,  under 
the  command  of  Conrad  of  Montferrat.  Jerusalem, 
after  a long  and  desperate  contest,  was  surrendered. 

The  news  of  the  catastrophe  of  Tiberias  and  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  spread  grief  throughout  Europe.  The 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  first  in  arms.  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  and  Henry  II  of  England  met  in 
Normandy  to  concert  measures  for  the  Third  Crusade. 
The  aged  emperor,  Frederic  Barbarossa,  summoned  a 
diet  at  Mentz,  in  which  he  himself,  with  his  son  and 
eightv-eight  spiritual  and  temporal  lords,  assumed  the 
cross.  Throughout  Europe  a tenth  of  all  movable  prop- 
erty, known  as  the  “Saladine  Tithe,”  was  levied  upon 
Jews  and  Christians  for  the  expense  of  the  wars.  Pass- 
ing the  Hellespont  without  deigning  to  visit  Constan- 
tinople, the  Emperor  Frederic  defeated  the  Turks  and 
captured  Iconium,  their  capital ; but  he  was  drowned  in 


The  Dark  Ages. 


337 


the  Cydnus,  and  the  hardships  of  the  march  reduced 
the  German  host  to  one-tenth  of  its  original  numbers 
long  before  it  arrived  at  Acre.  Some  soldiers  of 
Bremen  and  Lubec,  moved  by  the  sufferings  of  their 
comrades  here,  converted  their  tents  into  a hospital ; 
and  the  Duke  of  Suabia  founded  the  Order  of  Teutonic 
Knights,  who,  combining  the  charities  of  the  Hospital- 
lers with  the  chivalric  vow  of  the  Templars,  bound 
themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  the  defense  of 
the  holy  places. 

The  Christians  of  Palestine  had  mustered  all  their 
forces  for  the  recapture  of  Acre,  which,  as  a strongly 
fortified  port,  was  an  important  medium  of  supplies 
from  Europe.  Guy  of  Lusignan,  whom  Saladin  had 
released  from  prison,  perhaps  on  purpose  to  divide  the 
counsels  of  the  Franks,  had  at  one  time  100,000  men 
at  his  command ; but  the  death  of  his  wife  and  children, 
for  whose  sake  alone  the  crown  had  been  conferred 
upon  him,  undermined  the  authority  which  his  crimes 
and  weaknesses  of  character  had  always  rendered  irk- 
some to  his  subjects.  His  sister-in-law,  Isabel,  a 
younger  daughter  of  Almeric  married  Conrad  of  Mont- 
ferrat  now  Prince  of  Tyre,  a nobleman  of  great  and 
deserved  popularity,  who  became  the  successful  candi- 
date for  the  crown  of  Jerusalem. 

The  siege  lagged  until  the  arrival  of  the  French  and 
English  forces,  led  by  their  respective  kings.  Richard  I 
had  just  received  the  crown  of  England  upon  the  death 
of  his  father,  Henry  II,  and  the  fame  of  his  courage 
and  strength  gave  new  spirit  to  the  besiegers.  Two 
years  from  its  investment  the  city  fell,  July,  1191. 


338 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  Duke  of  Austria  planted  his  banner,  in  common 
with  the  French  and  English  chiefs,  on  part  of  the 
walls,  but  Richard  tore  it  down  with  his  own  hands 
and  threw  it  into  the  ditch — an  insult  which  led  to  a 
fierce  and  lasting  quarrel  between  the  two  princes. 
The  King  of  France,  either  disgusted  by  the  superior 
fame  of  Richard,  or  really  ill,  as  he  alleged,  soon 
returned  to  Europe,  leaving  a large  portion  of  his 
forces  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  to  serve  under  t?he 
English  king.  He  solemnly  swore  that  he  would  not 
molest  the  dominions  of  the  latter  during  his  engage- 
ment in  the  Holy  Wars ; but,  pausing  at  Rome  to  be 
absolved  by  the  Pope  from  this  inconvenient  vow,  he 
had  no  sooner  set  foot  in  France  than  he  began  to 
plot  with  John — the  brother  of  Richard  and  re-gent 
of  England  in  his  absence — to  possess  himself  of  the 
French  counties  and  duchies  for  which  Richard  was 
his  vassal,  John  being  encouraged  to  assume  the  Eng- 
lish crown  as  the  reward  of  his  compliance.  Though 
rumors  of  these  treacherous  movements  reached  Pal- 
estine, the  English  king  stayed  to  refortify  Jaffa, 
Ascalon,  and  Gaza,  working  with  his  own  hands  like 
a common  soldier,  while  bishops  and  the  highest  noble-s, 
urged  by  his  example,  carried  earth  and  mortar,  and 
aided  in  building  the  walls.  The  united  army  ap- 
proached within  sight  of  Jerusalem,  where  Saladin 
was  posted ; but  the  prudence  or  the  treachery  of  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  prevented  an  attack,  and  Richard, 
covering  his  face  with  a shield,  refused,  wi-th  grief 
and  shame,  to  look  upon  a city  which  he  was  unable 
to  deliver  from  the  infidel. 


The  Dark  Ages. 


339 


He  consented  to  the  crowning  of  Conrad  of  Mont- 
ferrat  as  King  of  Jerusalem,  indemnifying  Guy  of 
Lusignan,  the  deposed  sovereign,  by  a generous  gift 
of  Cyprus,  which  Richard  himself  had  conquered  from 
Isaac  Comnenus  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Land.  Conrad 
died  before  his  coronation,  and  Count  Henry  of  Cham- 
pagne succeeded  to  the  empty  title,  which  he  bore, 
A.  D.  1 192- 1 197.  On  the  eve  of  his  departure  for 
Europe,  the  English  king  signalized  his  valor  by  a 
new  exploit,  which  terrified  the  Saracens  and  secured 
for  the  Christians  a more  advantageous  peace.  Saladin, 
by  a rapid  movement,  had  possessed  himself  of  Jaffa. 
The  great  tower  still  held  out,  but  the  patriarch  and 
knights  had  promised  to  surrender  the  next  morning, 
unless  succor  should  arrive.  The  English  squadron 
appeared  in  time;  Richard  was  the  first  to  leap  on 
shore,  and  so  furious  was  his  onset,  that  the  Mussul- 
mans broke  up  their  camp  and  retreated  some  miles 
into  the  country.  Learning  with  shame  that  they  had 
been  driven  by  only  five  hundred  men,  they  endeavored 
in  a night  attack  to  regain  their  advantage,  but  Richard, 
with  ten  knights  in  full  armor,  issuing  suddenly  from 
the  Christian  tents,  renewed  the  panic;  and  Saladin, 
now  exhausted  by  a long  series  of  battles,  consented  to 
an  honorable  truce  of  three  years  and  eight  months. 
The  sea-coast  from  Tyre  to  Jaffa  was  surrendered  to 
the  Christians,  and  pilgrims  from  Europe  were  guaran- 
teed safety  and  freedom  from  imposition  in  their  visits 
to  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  The  barons  whose  estates  had 
been  conquered  by  the  Saracens  were  indemnified  by 
grants  of  towns  and  castles. 


340 


Ancient  Empires. 


Arriving  in  the  Mediterranean,  opposite  the  French 
coast,  Richard  learned  that  the  feudal  lords  of  that 
region  had  resolved  to  seize  him  if  he  landed  on  their 
territory.  Unable  to  proceed  to  England  in  his  unsea- 
worthy vessel,  he  turned  toward  Germany,  and,  guided 
by  some  pirates,  landed  at  Zara.  He  wished  to  traverse 
Germany  in  disguise,  but  he  was  identified  and  impris- 
oned by  his  old  enemy,  the  Duke  of  Austria,  who  sur- 
rendered him  the  next  spring  to  the  emperor,  Henry 
VI.  Before  the  Diet  at  Haguenau,  Richard  was 
accused  of  several  grave  offenses,  but  he  defended 
himself  with  such  eloquence  that  all  but  the  most 
prejudiced  were  convinced  of  his  innocence.  He  re- 
ceived the  investiture  of  the  kingdom  of  Arles,  and 
voted  as  a prince  of  the  empire  in  the  next  imperial 
election.  During  his  enforced  absence  from  England 
his  brother  made  new  efforts  to  seize  the  crown,  while 
Philip  of  France  invaded  Normandy,  and  both  per- 
jured princes  offered  large  sums  of  money  to  the 
emperor  to  keep  Richard  in  perpetual  captivity  or 
deliver  him  into  their  hands.  The  disgraceful  bargain 
might  have  been  sealed  but  for  the  indignant  protest 
of  the  German  princes,  who  compelled  Henry  VI  to 
accept  the  ransom  offered  by  the  English  Parliament 
for  the  liberation  of  the  king.  He  was  released  after 
long  delays,  and  landed  at  Sandwich  fifteen  months 
from  his  capture  and  five  years  from  his  departure  for 
the  Holy  Wars.  The  share  of  the  Duke  of  Austria  in  his 
ransom  money  went  to  enrich  the  newly  founded  city 
of  Vienna. 

During  the  captivity  of  Richard,  his  great  enemy, 


The  Dark  Ages. 


341 


Saladin,  had  died  in  Palestine,  A.  D.  1193.  His  three 
sons  became  sultans  of  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  Egypt ; 
but  his  brother,  Saphadin,  ruled  the  greater  part  of 
Syria.  A fresh  crusade  was  undertaken  by  the  German 
princes  and  bishops  who  were  joined  on  their  march 
by  the  widowed  Queen  of  Hungary.  The  dukes  of 
Saxony  and  Lower  Lorraine  defeated  Saphadin  be- 
tween Tyre  and  Sidon,  thus  liberating  many 
cities  and  9,000  Christian  captives.  Another 
victory  was  followed  by  the  news  of  the  emper- 
or’s death,  and  the  sudden  departure  for  Germany  of 
all  the  princes  who,  by  vote  or  influence,  could  hope  to 
affect  the  choice  of  his  successor.  Saphadin,  rallying 
his  forces,  recaptured  Jaffa,  and  put  every  inhabitant  to 
the  sword.  The  great  expedition,  having  thus  failed, 
is  not  commonly  numbered  among  the  Crusades. 

A Fourth  Crusade  was  proclaimed,  A.  D.  1200,  by 
Innocent  III,  who  imposed  upon  the  clergy  through- 
out Europe  a tax  for  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Prin- 
ces and  people  joined  their  offerings.  Those  who  could 
not  go  to  Palestine  in  person  commuted  their  service 
into  money,  and  the  treasury  of  the  Vatican  over- 
flowed. Thibaud,  Count  of  Champagne,  brother  of 
the  late  King  of  Jerusalem,  was  among  the  first  to 
assume  the  cross,  and  a council  of  French 
barons  met  at  Soissons  to  deliberate  upon  the 
means  of  fulfilling  their  vow.  The  horrors  of  a land 
journey  into  Asia  were  already  too  well  proven ; but 
the  feudal  lords  had  not,  like  Richard  or  Philip  Augus- 
tus, the  resource  of  a national  navy.  It  was,  therefore, 
resolved  to  engage  the  aid  of  Venice,  then  the  greatest 


342 


Ancient  Empires. 


maritime  power  in  Europe.  A treaty  was  made  be- 
tween the  deputies  of  the  barons  and  the  Grand  Council 
of  the  republic  for  the  transportation  of  the  troops  in 
Venetian  vessels,  Venice  herself  becoming  an  ally  in 
the  war  and  an  equal  sharer  in  the  prizes. 

Soon  after  Easter,  A.  D.  1202,  the  French  crusaders 
crossed  Mount  Cenis  and  assembled  at  Venice.  Some 
delay  occurring  in  the  prepayment  of  the  transporta- 
tion money,  Doge  Dandolo  secured  their  aid  in  the 
recovery  of  Zara,  on  the  Dalmatian  coast,  which  had 
revolted  to  Hungary.  Feeble  and  nearly  blind,  at  the 
age  of  ninety-four,  the  Doge  led  the  expedition  in  per- 
son and  gained  a complete  victory.  But  a more  bril- 
liant enterprise,  tempted  the  French  and  Venetian  arms. 
Isaac  Angelus,  Emperor  of  the  East,  had  been  de- 
throned, imprisoned,  and  deprived  of  his  eyes  by  an 
unnatural  brother,  whom  he  had  himself  redeemed 
from  Turkish  slavery.  His  son,  Alexis,  escaped  and 
found  refuge  with  his  brother-in-law,  the  Duke  of 
Suabia.  Appearing  before  the  French  and  Italian 
leaders  in  their  camp  at  Zara,  the  envoys  of  Alexis- 
besought  their  aid  in  restoring  his  father  to  the  throne, 
promising  in  return  the  co-operation  of  the  Greeks  in 
the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land. 

The  Pope  forbade  this  diversion  of  forces  which 
were  consecrated  to  the  deliverance  of  Palestine ; but 
the  knights  resolved  to  turn  so  far  aside  from  their 
original  purpose  in  order  to  make  good  their  character 
as  champions  of  justice  and  avengers  of  wrong.  By 
two  attacks  Constantinople  was  taken,  and  the  blind 
old  emperor  was  drawn  from  his  dungeon  and  replaced 


343 


The  Dark  Ages. 

upon  the  throne  in  partnership  with  his  son,  Alexis. 
The  season  being  far  advanced,  the  French  and  Vene- 
tians consented  to  winter  at  Constantinople,  and  aid 
to  establish  more  firmly  the  power  which  they  had 
restored.  A brawl  between  the  inhabitants  and  the 
Flemish  soldiers  ended  in  a conflagration,  which  con- 
tinued eight  days  and  consumed  three  miles  of  densely 
populated  dwellings.  Alexis,  who  was  disliked  by  his 
own  subjects  for  his  alliance  with  the  Franks,  offended 
the  latter  by  vacillation  and  delay  in  the  payment  of 
the  promised  subsidies,  and  a fresh  war  broke  out. 
The  guards  of  the  palace  set  up  an  emperor  of  their 
own  in  the  person  of  Alexis  Mourzoufle,  a kinsman  of 
the  imperial  family  distinguished  for  his  hatred  of 
the  Latins.  Alexis  Angelus  was  imprisoned,  and  his 
blind  father  died  of  terror. 

The  French  and  Venetians  now  united  for  a second 
capture  of  the  city.  It  was  taken,  and  houses,  churches, 
even  the  tombs  of  the  emperors,  were  despoiled  in  a 
mad  riot  of  pillage.  Sculptures  preserved  from  the 
golden  age  of  Grecian  art  were  destroyed  by  barbarians 
too  ignorant  to  discern  their  value — if  of  marble,  they 
were  hacked  to -pieces;  if  of  bronze,  they  were  melted 
into  coin  or  household  utensils.  The  Venetians,  some- 
what more  civilized  than  the  French,  reserved  the 
four  bronze  horses  of  Lysippus  to  adorn  their  church 
of  St.  Mark.  After  paying  their  long  deferred  debt 
to  their  allies,  the  French  had  a sum  left  from  their 
share  of  the  plunder  which  equaled  seven  times  the 
yearly  revenue  of  England  at  that  time. 

Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  was  chosen  by  the  two 


344 


Ancient  Empires. 


conquering  nations  to  be  Emperor  of  the  East.  Only 
one-fourth  of  the  dominion  of  the  Comneni  fell  to 
his  share,  the  rest  being  divided  between  the  Vene- 
tians, Lombards,  and  French.  The  Latin  Empire  at 
Constantinople  lasted  fifty-seven  years,  during  which 
the  Roman  ritual  superseded  that  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
churches,  and  the  laws  of  Jerusalem  were  imposed  upon 
the  people  in  contempt  of  the  code  of  Basil  and  Leo 
VI.  Fragments  of  the  conquered  empire  were  erected 
into  rival  states  by  members  of  the  deposed  family, 
who  reigned  at  Nice,  at  Trebizond,  and  in  northern 
Greece;  and  in  A.  D.  1261,  Michael  Palaeologus,  the 
Nicaean  emperor,  aided  by  the  mutual  rivalries  of  the 
Genoese  and  Venetians,  expelled  the  sixth  of  the  usur- 
pers, and  recovered  the  -throne  of  the  Caesars.  Most 
of  the  Archipelago  and  Greece  proper  remained  many 
years  longer  in  the  feudal  control  of  the  Latins. 

Few  of  those  who  took  arms  for  the  Fourth  Cru- 
sade ever  reached  the  Holy  Land ; but  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople  so  alarmed  the  Mussulmans  that  Sap- 
hadin  hastened  by  liberal  concessions  to  secure  a six 
years’  truce. 

The  continuance  of  the  fanatical  spirit  in  Europe 
was  shown  by  the  Children’s  Crusade,  A.  D.  1211.  A 
superstition  gained  ground,  especially  in  Germany,  that 
the  princes  and  soldiery  were  forbidden  to  possess  the 
Holy  Land  because  of  their  sins,  and  that  the  great 
honor  was  reserved  for  the  innocent  and  the  weak. 
Ninety  thousand  children  are  said  to  have  assembled 
from  the  various  towns  and  hamlets,  and,  led  only  by 
a child,  to  have  advanced  as  far  as  Genoa.  Here  they 


The  Dark  Ages. 


345 


found  the  sea,  of  which  they  had  never  heard,  and, 
separating,  some  took  ship,  only  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  Moorish  pirates,  and  the  rest  wandered  about  until 
they  perished  of  hunger  or  fatigue.  Probably  not  one 
of  the  deluded  host  ever  reached  Palestine,  or  even 
regained  his  home. 

THE  LAST  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 

By  the  death  of  Almeric  of  Lusignan  and  his  wife, 
A.  D.  1206,  the  shadowy  crown  of  Jerusalem  rested 
again  upon  a young  girl’s  head;  and  as  no  nobleman 
in  Palestine  was  judged  worthy  to  share  that  slight 
but  perilous  honor,  John  of  Brienne,  a favorite  of  the 
King  of  France,  was  designated  as  the  husband  of 
Mary,  daughter  of  Isabella  and  Conrad  of  Montferrat. 
He  was  accompanied  from  Europe  by  three  hundred 
knights,  the  whole  contribution  of  Christendom  at  that 
time  toward  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  Eng- 
land was  absorbed  by  dissensions  between  her  king 
and  barons;  France,  by  a crusade  against  her  own 
people,  the  Albigenses  of  the  south ; and  Germany,  by 
the  struggle  between  the  emperor  and  the  Pope  for 
the  dominion  of  Italy. 

The  new  King  of  Jerusalem  appealed  for  aid,  and 
Innocent  III  issued  a stirring  exhortation  to  all  west- 
ern Christendom.  The  eloquence  of  his  preachers  was 
seconded  by  the  songs  of  poets,  who  had  not  only  pious, 
but  patriotic  motives  for  urging  the  foreign  expedition. 
Their  sovereign  and  most  munificent  patron  was  the 
Count  of  Toulouse,  with  whom,  as  a protector  of 
heretics,  the  King  of  France  was  at  war;  and  they 


346 


Ancient  Empires. 


naturally  desired  to  divert  the  assaults  of  bigotry  from 
their  own  countrymen  to  the  Saracens.  The  vanguard 
of  the  Fifth  Crusade  was  led  by  the  nation  which  had 
most  obstructed  the  first.  Andrew  II  of  Hungary, 
incited  by  his  father’s  wish  and  his  mother’s  example, 
took  the  cross,  and  was  joined  by  all  the  lay  and 
spiritual  lords  of  southern  Germany.  But  he  accom- 
plished personally  little  more  than  a multitude  of  pil- 
grimages and  the  collection  of  innumerable  relics ; and 
then,  in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  allies,  he  returned 
to  his  impoverished  kingdom. 

Egypt  was  now  the  heart  of  the  Moslem  power, 
and  thither  a second  army  of  Germans  directed  their 
efforts.  They  took  the  fortress  of  Damietta  by  as- 
sault, and  besieged  the  town.  Many  obstinate  battles 
were  fought;  the  places  of  the  exhausted  besiegers 
were  filled  by  recruits  from  England  and  the  free  cities 
of  Italy ; and  at  length  the  city  was  taken.  A hideous 
spectacle  met  the  eyes  of  the  conquerors.  Hunger  and 
pestilence  had  reduced  the  70,000  inhabitants  to  3,000, 
and  the  survivors  were  more  like  animated  skeletons 
than  like  living  beings.  In  the  attempt  to  complete 
the  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  invaders  were  in  turn  van- 
quished by  the  great  natural  force  which  has  served  in 
all  ages  both  for  the  nourishment  and  protection  of 
that  country.  The  rising  Nile  was  turned  into  the 
Latin  camp,  tents  and  baggage  were  swept  away,  and 
all  communication  with  Damietta  cut  off.  In  this  peri- 
lous position  the  papal  legate  was  reduced  humbly  to 
beg  for  far  less  favorable  terms  than  he  had  once 
haughtily  rejected.  Damietta  was  surrendered;  the 


The  Dark  Ages. 


347 


starving  hosts  of  Christendom  were  fed  from  the 
granaries  of  the  Sultan,  and  permitted  to  march  into 
Syria. 

The  emperor,  Frederic  II,  had  been  excommuni- 
cated for  his  delay  in  joining  the  crusade,  and  when 
in  A.  D.  1227  he  at  length  embarked,  he  was  excom- 
municated again  for  presuming  to  go  without  permis- 
sion. He  was  welcomed,  however,  by  the  Teutonic 
knights,  and  cautiously  joined  by  the  Hospitallers  and 
Templars.  His  personal  influence  effected  more  than 
even  the  battle-ax  of  Coeur  de  Lion ; for  Jerusalem, 
Jaffa,  Bethlehem,  and  Nazareth  were  ceded  to  the 
Christians.  Accompanied  only  by  his  courtiers  and 
the  Teutonic  knights,  Frederic  crowned  himself  in  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  since  no  priest  would 
perform  that  office.  John  of  Brienne,  with  the  hand 
of  his  daughter,  Violante,  had  conferred  upon  the 
emperor  his  own  right  to  the  crown  of  Jerusalem ; but 
returning  to  Europe  he  did  not  hesitate,  in  the  service 
of  the  Pope,  to  ravage  the  Italian  territories  of  his 
son-in-law. 

The  emperor  being  thus  recalled  from  Palestine,  the 
truce  which  he  had  made  was  disregarded,  and  on  one 
occasion  10,000  pilgrims  were  massacred  on  the  road 
to  Jerusalem.  The  Templars  sustained  a severe  de- 
feat upon  the  death  of  the  Sultan  of  Aleppo,  with 
whom  they  were  at  peace.  Every  commandery  in 
Christendom  hastened  to  send  reinforcements ; a fresh 
crusade  was  announced  by  the  Council  at  Spoleto,  and 
the  new  orders  of  Dominican  and  Franciscan  monks 
became  the  bearers  of  its  decrees  to  all  parts  of  Europe. 


348 


Ancient  Empires. 


The  purpose  was,  as  before,  to  fill  the  coffers  of  the 
Church  with  commutation  money;  and  when  Richard, 
Earl  of  Cornwall,  brother  of  the  English  king,  as- 
sumed the  cross  in  sincerity,  the  Pope  forbade  his 
embarkation  at  Dover,  and  tried  to  intercept  him  at 
Marseilles.  On  the  arrival  at  Jaffa  of  the  English 
prince  and  nobles,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  sent  to  propose 
terms  of  peace.  The  greater  part  of  Palestine  was 
surrendered  to  the  Christians ; the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
were  rebuilt,  and  the  churches  reconsecrated.  The 
objects  of  the  expedition  having  been  secured  by  peace- 
ful negotiation,  it  is  by  most  writers  not  reckoned  in  the 
number  of  the  Crusades. 

But  another  foe,  equally  terrible  to  Saracens  and 
Christians,  now  appeared  from  the  northeast,  in  the 
Tartar  hordes  expelled  from  Khorasmia  by  Zenghis 
Khan,  and  who,  sweeping  over  Palestine,  captured 
Jerusalem  and  murdered  most  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
Templars  called  in  their  Syrian  allies,  and  the  com- 
bined armies  fought  for  two  days  a fierce  battle  with 
the  pagans,  only  to  be  overthrown  and  annihilated.  The 
two  grand  masters  of  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers 
were  slain,  and  only  fifty-two  knights  of  all  three 
orders  remained  alive  and  free.  Barbacan,  the  Tartar 
chief,  was  slain,  however,  in  a general  battle,  and 
southern  Asia  was  relieved  for  the  moment  from  its 
panic  and  distress. 

The  Seventh  Crusade  was  led  by  the  good  king, 
Louis  IX  of  France,  accompanied  by  his  three  broth- 
ers, the  counts  of  Artois,  Poitiers,  and  Anjou. 
Having  wintered  in  Cyprus,  Louis  sailed  to  Egypt. 


The  Dark  Ages. 


349 


Damietta,  though  strongly  fortified,  made  no  resist- 
ance, and  all  its  magazines  of  grain  were  added  to 
the  stock  of  the  crusaders ; but  in  their  march  toward 
Cairo,  the  French  were  arrested  by  the  canal  of 
Ashmoum.  The  Count  of  Artois,  discovering  a ford, 
led  his  followers  through,  routed  the  Mussulmans  who 
were  posted  on  the  opposite  bank,  and  paused  not  until 
he  had  entered  the  half-deserted  town  of  Massourah 
Here  the  Moslems  rallied  and  joined  battle  in  the 
streets  of  the  town.  The  concealed  inhabitants  flung 
stones,  boiling  water,  and  burning  coals  from  their 
roofs  upon  the  heads  of  the  assailants.  The  arrival 
of  the  French  king  prevented  a total  rout;  but  the 
death  of  his  brother,  with  the  grand  master  of 
the  Templars  and  a multitude  of  knights,  paid  the 
penalty  of  their  rashness.  The  retreat  was  more  dis- 
astrous than  the  battle.  All  the  sick  in  the  French 
camp  were  murdered  by  the  Mussulmans ; the  king 
himself  was  made  prisoner  with  his  two  remaining 
brothers,  all  the  nobles,  and  20,000  men  of  lower  rank. 

The  city  of  Damietta  was  surrendered  for  the  king’s 
ransom.  He  then  proceeded  to  Palestine,  where  he 
spent  four  years  in  seeking  to  establish  that  good  order 
which  his  just  and  beneficent  reign  had  already  con- 
ferred upon  France.  No  military  successes  attended 
his  crusade.  The  death  of  the  queen  regent  recalled 
him  to  his  own  kingdom ; and  he  sacrificed  his  strong 
desire  to  visit  Jerusalem  to  the  feeling  that  a king 
in  arms  had  no  right  to  behold  as  a pilgrim  what  he 
could  not  possess  as  a conqueror. 

If  the  Christians  of  Palestine  could  have  remained 


850 


Ancient  Empires. 


at  peace  among  themselves,  they  might  have  been 
victorious  over  the  common  enemy ; but  the  Italian 
merchants  of  the  various  cities  never  forgot  their  rival- 
ries, and  the  jealousy  of  the  two  military  brotherhoods 
broke  out,  soon  after  the  Seventh  Crusade,  into  actual 
war.  The  knights  of  St.  John  were  the  victors  in  a 
battle  from  which  scarcely  a Templar  escaped  alive. 
This  shameful  war  was  interrupted  by  the  invasion 
of  Palestine,  by  Mamelukes  from  Egypt.  Nine- 
ty Hospitallers  held  Azotus,  and  died  to  the 
lastmanin  its  defense.  The  Templars  at  Saphoury  were 
forced  to  capitulate ; but,  contrary  to  the  terms  of  sur- 
render, they  were  afterward  required  to  choose  be- 
tween apostasy  and  death.  The  knights  and  garrison, 
to  the  number  of  600  men,  sealed  their  faith  with  their 
blood.  Jaffa  and  Beaufort  were  taken;  Antioch  was 
surrendered  after  17,000  of  its  peopie  had  been  slain 
and  100,000  made  prisoners. 

The  news  in  Europe  of  the  fall  of  Antioch  occa- 
sioned an  Eighth  Crusade.  Prince  Edward  of  Eng- 
land, with  the  powerful  earls  of  Pembroke  and  War- 
wick, assumed  the  cross.  King  Louis  of  France 
heartily  joined  in  the  alliance ; but  his  first,  and  as  it 
proved  his  last,  hostilities  were  directed  against  the 
Moors  of  Tunis.  His  brother,  Charles,  Count  of 
Anjou,  and  now  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  urged  this 
enterprise  for  selfish  reasons,  for  northern  Africa  had 
formerly  paid  tribute  to  the  Neapolitan  kingdom. 
Carthage  was  taken  and  plundered,  but  the  army  was 
stricken  by  the  plague,  which  carried  off  the  king 
and  one  of  his  sons.  Prince  Edward  arrived  the 


The  Dark  Ages. 


851 


next  spring  in  Palestine,  where  the  name  of  Plan- 
tagenet  mustered  around  him  all  the  European  forces. 
Nazareth  was  taken,  the  Turks  were  defeated,  and  a 
truce  for  ten  years  was  already  concluded  with  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  when  the  death  of  Henry  III  in 
England  required  the  return  of  the  prince  to  assume 
his  crown. 

The  last  general  effort  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
Holy  Land,  though  enrolling  many  great  names,  was 
feeble  in  its  execution  and  disastrous  in  its  results,  and 
is  not  commonly  numbered  among  the  Crusades.  Ru- 
dolph of  Hapsburg,  the  new  Emperor  of  the  West, 
Michael  Palseologus,  the  conqueror  and  successor  of 
the  last  Latin  Emperor  of  the  East,  and  Charles,  the 
French  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  were  partners  in 
the  enterprise.  The  latter  received  from  Mary,  Prin- 
cess of  Antioch,  a surrender  of  her  hereditary  claim  to 
the  crown  of  Jerusalem.  Hugh,  King  of  Cyprus,  was, 
however,  crowned  at  Tyre,  and  disputes  for  this  un- 
substantial dignity  had  their  part  in  defeating  the 
counsels  of  the  allies.  Margat  was  captured  by  the 
Turks,  A.  D.  1280.  Tripoli,  the  seat  of  the  last  re- 
maining barony  of  the  Christians  in  Asia,  was  taken, 
and  its  people  murdered  or  enslaved.  Acre  was  almost 
the  only  refuge  of  Europeans,  and  its  several  wards 
or  districts  were  assigned  to  miserable  fugitives  from 
the  lost  cities  and  provinces,  who  could  not  forget  their 
jealousies  even  in  their  common  distress. 

The  Sultan  of  Egypt  mustered  all  his  forces  to 
destroy  this  last  nucleus  of  Christianity  in  the  East, 
and  200,000  Mamelukes  were  assembled  for  the  siege 


352 


Ancient  Empires. 


of  Acre.  The  defense  was  long  and  obstinate;  the 
principal  entrance  to  the  city  was  repeatedly  lost  andi 
won,  and  each  time  at  great  expense  of  Moslem  and 
Christian  blood ; but  at  length  the  grand  master  of  the 
Templars,  who  had  been  intrusted  with  the  command, 
was  slain  with  most  of  his  followers,  the  town  was 
in  flames,  and  the  seven  knights  who  alone  survived 
of  the  Order  of  St.  John  embarked  for  Europe.  The 
unarmed  people  who  could  not  escape  by  sea  perished 
on  the  shore.  Tyre,  Beirut,  and  other  towns  surren- 
dered. All  Palestine  was  overrun  by  the  Turks,  and 
after  a few  more  efforts  by  the  Templars,  it  was  aban- 
doned to  the  Moslem  dominion. 

Though  the  hope  of  delivering  the  Holy  Land  lin- 
gered several  centuries  in  the  minds  of  European 
princes,  and  though  some  private  enterprises  were  un- 
dertaken with  that  purpose,  no  general  and  public 
effort  was  renewed.  Fifteen  years  from  the  fall  of 
Acre,  a new  crusade  was  proclaimed  by  Pope  Clement 
V,  but  few  of  those  who  assembled  at  Brindisi  knew 
its  object,  which  was  merely  to  conquer  the  island  of 
Rhodes  from  the  Greeks  and  Saracens  for  a permanent 
residence  of  the  knights  of  St.  John.  The  thousands 
of  Europeans  who  remained  in  Palestine  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  princes  and  military  orders,  became 
so  mingled  with  the  Mohammedans  that  no  distinction 
of  faith  or  nationality  was  long  to  he  perceived.  The 
Venetians  made  a treaty  of  friendship  with  the  Mus- 
sulmans of  Egypt,  and  received  in  Alexandria  a 
church,  a magazine,  and  an  exchange,  where  they 
carried  on  a disgraceful  traffic  in  Georgian  and  Circas- 


The  Dark  Ages. 


353 


sian  slaves.  The  Genoese  possessed  extensive  streets 
and  warehouses  in  Constantinople,  with  the  control  of 
the  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Though  failing  in  their  immediate  object,  the  Cru- 
sades had  most  important  and  widely  reaching  results. 
Europe,  divided  by  the  feudal  system  into  a multitude 
of  petty  sovereignties,  was  then  first  united  in  the  only 
bond  that  could  equally  hold  kings,  nobles,  peasants, 
and  priests.  To  defray  the  cost  of  their  equipment, 
many  princes  had  sold  their  estates,  and  these,  though 
usually  absorbed  by  the  Church,  were  sometimes 
bought  by  common  citizens,  whose  importance  as  indi- 
viduals and  as  a class  was  thus  greatly  increased.  On 
the  crusaders  themselves,  contact  with  unfamiliar  cus- 
toms had  something  of  its  natural  effect  in  enlarging 
the  mind  and  rendering  it  tolerant  of  new  ideas.  Con- 
stantinople, then  the  grandest  and  most  beautiful  city 
in  the  world,  produced,  even  in  its  decline,  the  same 
effect  upon  the  western  that  old  Rome  had  upon  the 
northern  barbarians — the  impression  of  a society, 
though  enervated  and  decaying,  yet  far  more  enlight- 
ened and  advanced  than  their  own. 

In  the  historians  who  accompanied  the  several  expe- 
ditions may  be  seen  the  contrast  between  the  narrow 
views  of  the  first  crusaders  and  the  more  courteous 
and  liberal  sentiments  of  their  successors.  The  earlier 
chroniclers  describe  the  “infidel  dogs”  as  monsters, 
and  exult  in  the  most  inhuman  atrocities  inflicted  upon 
their  defenseless  wives  and  children ; the  later  writers 
mention  some  Mussulmans  with  admiration,  and  hold 
up  the  delicate  generosity  of  Saladin  as  a rebuke  to 
the  barbarity  of  so-called  Christians. 


354 


Ancient  Empires. 

Extensive  intercourse  between  the  East  and  the 
West  resulted  from  the  Crusades.  India  and  China., 
long  the  abode  of  high  civilization,  had  hitherto  con- 
tributed nothing  of  importance  to  the  general  stock 
of  ideas  and  comforts,  owing  to  their  isolation 
at  the  extreme  circumference  of  the  land  hemis- 
phere. The  consequences  of  increased  commu- 

nication will  very  soon  be  seen  in  the  adoption 
of  eastern  inventions,  which  changed  the  whole 
current  of  European  life.  Mongol  embassa- 

dors were  seen  in  the  cities  of  Europe ; and 
Italians,  French,  and  Flemings  visited  the  court  of 
the  Grand  Khan.  A Tartar  made  helmets  for 
the  French  army  of  Philip  the  Fair.  Venetian 
merchants — among  them  the  father  of  Marco  Polo — 
resided  for  years  in  China  and  Tartary,  and  established 
trade  with  Hindustan.  The  narrow  circle  of  Euro- 
pean ideas  was  widened  to  include  the  art  and  lan- 
guages of  Asia,  and  their  influence  may  be  traced  in 
the  rise  of  the  modern  literatures  in  Europe. 

Of  the  three  orders  of  knights  founded  during  the 
Crusades,  the  Templars,  having  no  longer  use  for  their 
ample  revenues,  became  luxurious,  haughty,  and  dan- 
gerous to  settled  governments ; the  Hospitallers,  being 
on  garrison  duty  against  the  Turks,  successively  in 
Cyprus,  Rhodes,  and  Malta,  retained  their  chivalrous 
and  active  life ; the  Teutonic  knights  found  a still  more 
stirring  field  of  combat  with  the  heathenism  of  north- 
ern Europe.  Prussia  was  still  pagan,  and  her  fierce 
warriors  were  even  fanatical  in  their  aversion  to  Chris- 
tianity, Herman  von  Salza,  the  illustrious  grand  mas- 


The  Dark  Ages. 


355 


ter,  accepted  with  joy  the  invitation  of  the  northern 
bishops.  Building  themselves  a fort  at  Marienburg, 
the  knights  began  their  arduous  task  both  by  preaching 
and  by  fighting.  More  than  half  a century  elapsed 
before  the  spirit  of  resistance  was  broken,  and  still  an- 
other century  before  Christianity  was  firmly  estab- 
lished. 

In  the  intervals  of  war  the  knights  redeemed  the 
marshy  country  by  embankments,  and  replaced  the  salt 
quagmires  with  grassy  and  fertile  meadows.  Mean- 
while the  order  became  the  rallying  point  for  all  chiv- 
alry of  Germany.  It  absorbed  into  itself  the  Sword 
Brothers  and  other  military  fraternities,  and  was  vic- 
torious not  only  in  Prussia,  but  in  Livonia,  Courland, 
and  Lithuania.  Its  near  neighborhood  to  Pomerania 
and  the  kingdom  of  Poland  led,  however,  to  disastrous 
wars,  and  eventually  to  its  decline.  Following  this 
came  the  birth  and  growth  of  modern  civilization. 


